CNN WORLD NEWS: Islam is the fastest-growing religion
http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9704/14/egyp...
Islam is Fastest Growing Religion in United States:
http://www.defendamerica.mil/articles...
Times on line: Thousands of british people convert to islam every year:
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news...
Why European women are turning to Islam:
http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1227/p0...
Washington-Report: The Nation's Fastest Growing Religion
http://www.washington-report.org/back...
Washington Post: Islam Luring More Latinos
http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-...
Islam is spreading among Thousands black South Africans
http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id...
Washington Post: Islam Attracting Many Thousands Survivors of Rwanda Genocide
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/...
Islam - World's Fastest Growing Religion
http://www.geocities.com/Pentagon/301...
Many Converts to Islam Homepage:
http://www.islamawareness.net/Converts/
urces:
http://thetruereligion.org/modules/xf...
Learn more about islam:
http://www.islamreligion.com/
http://www.islam-guide.com/
http://www.sultan.org/
http://www.miraclesofthequran.com/
Today the fastest growing religion in the World is Islam..spreading through the Sword of intellect and Wisdom .
http://www.islamicweb.com/begin/resul...
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Reading Room
The Competency-Based Approach to Training
JHPIEGO Strategy Paper • September 1995
Prepared by Rick Sullivan, PhD
Director, Training Office, JHPIEGO Corporation
* What is CBT?
* Characteristics of CBT
* Advantages and Limitations of CBT
* Models and Simulations of CBT
* Evaluation and Assessment in CBT
* Implications for Using CBT
* JHPIEGO's Approach to CBT
* Transfer of Training
* Summary
* References
* Credits
* Printer-friendly version
(Adobe® Acrobat®)(39k)
Throughout the world, millions of students go to school every day. These students study subjects such as science, language and mathematics in courses usually scheduled to last the duration of the school year. Because progression through the various subjects in school is time-based, at any given time during the year the teacher is expected to be at a specific point in the textbook or course content. While not every student may progress at the same rate, the schedule typically requires everyone to move at the same rate as the teacher. Tests are administered periodically to ensure students understand the concepts and principles. Test scores often are compared to determine the grades of the students. Unfortunately, when a student does not do well on a test there often is little time for individual assistance as the teacher must move on in order to adhere to the established time schedule.
While traditional, time-based approaches to education have met with varying levels of success over the years, it is an ineffective system when the goal is to train individuals to perform specific, job-related skills. For example, an active, certified airline pilot is attending a 3-week training course to learn to fly a new type of aircraft. Will attending all sessions during the course ensure the pilot can fly the plane? Of course not! If the pilot is unable to attend 2 days of the course, does this mean the pilot cannot fly the plane? Probably not. After 4 days, the pilot does poorly on a written test. Should the pilot immediately fail the course or should the pilot continue with assistance and be given the opportunity to be tested again? If the pilot can pass all written tests does this indicate that the pilot can fly the plane? No! In addition to assessing knowledge, an evaluation of the pilot’s skills also is required.
Obviously, the time-based educational system used in schools and universities is not appropriate when conducting training. A more appropriate approach is competency-based training (CBT).
What is CBT?
In a traditional educational system, the unit of progression is time and it is teacher-centered. In a CBT system, the unit of progression is mastery of specific knowledge and skills and is learner- or participant-centered. Two key terms used in competency-based training are:
* Skill—A task or group of tasks performed to a specific level of competency or proficiency which often use motor functions and typically require the manipulation of instruments and equipment (e.g., IUD insertion or Norplant ® implants removal). Some skills, however, such as counseling, are knowledge- and attitude-based.
* Competency—A skill performed to a specific standard under specific conditions.
There appears to be substantial support for competency-based training. Norton (1987) believes that competency-based training should be used as opposed to the “medieval concept of time-based learning.” Foyster (1990) argues that using the traditional “school” model for training is inefficient. After in-depth examinations of three competency-based programs, Anthony Watson (1990) concluded that competency-based instruction has tremendous potential for training in industry. Moreover, in a 1990 study of basic skills education programs in business and industry, Paul Delker found that successful training programs were competency-based.
A competent clinician (e.g., physician, nurse, midwife, medical assistant) is one who is able to perform a clinical skill to a satisfactory standard. Competency-based training for reproductive health professionals then is training based upon the participant’s ability to demonstrate attainment or mastery of clinical skills performed under certain conditions to specific standards (the skills then become competencies). Norton (1987) describes five essential elements of a CBT system:
* Competencies to be achieved are carefully identified, verified and made public in advance.
* Criteria to be used in assessing achievement and the conditions under which achievement will be assessed are explicitly stated and made public in advance.
* The instructional program provides for the individual development and evaluation of each of the competencies specified.
* Assessment of competency takes the participant’s knowledge and attitudes into account but requires actual performance of the competency as the primary source of evidence.
* Participants progress through the instructional program at their own rate by demonstrating the attainment of the specified competencies.
Characteristics of CBT
How does one identify a competency-based training program? In addition to a set of competencies, what other characteristics are associated with CBT? According to Foyster (1990), Delker (1990) and Norton (1987) there are a number of characteristics of competency-based programs. Key characteristics are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of Competency-Based Training Programs
* Competencies are carefully selected.
* Supporting theory is integrated with skill practice. Essential knowledge is learned to support the performance of skills.
* Detailed training materials are keyed to the competencies to be achieved and are designed to support the acquisition of knowledge and skills.
* Methods of instruction involve mastery learning, the premise that all participants can master the required knowledge or skill, provided sufficient time and appropriate training methods are used.
* Participants’ knowledge and skills are assessed as they enter the program and those with satisfactory knowledge and skills may bypass training or competencies already attained.
* Learning should be self-paced.
* Flexible training approaches including large group methods, small group activities and individual study are essential components.
* A variety of support materials including print, audiovisual and simulations (models) keyed to the skills being mastered are used.
* Satisfactory completion of training is based on achievement of all specified competencies.
Advantages and Limitations of CBT
One of the primary advantages of CBT is that the focus is on the success of each participant. Watson (1990) states that the competency-based approach “appears especially useful in training situations where trainees have to attain a small number of specific and job-related competencies” (page 18). Benefits of CBT identified by Norton (1987) include:
* Participants will achieve competencies required in the performance of their jobs.
* Participants build confidence as they succeed in mastering specific competencies.
* Participants receive a transcript or list of the competencies they have achieved.
* Training time is used more efficiently and effectively as the trainer is a facilitator of learning as opposed to a provider of information.
* More training time is devoted to working with participants individually or in small groups as opposed to presenting lectures.
* More training time is devoted to evaluating each participant’s ability to perform essential job skills.
While there are a number of advantages of competency-based training, there also are some potential limitations. Prior to implementing CBT, it is important to consider these limitations:
* Unless initial training and followup assistance is provided for the trainers, there is a tendency to “teach as we were taught” and CBT trainers quickly slip back into the role of the traditional teacher.
* A CBT course is only as effective as the process used to identify the competencies. When little or no attention is given to identification of the essential job skills, then the resulting training course is likely to be ineffective.
* A course may be classified as competency-based, but unless specific CBT materials and training approaches (e.g., learning guides, checklists and coaching) are designed to be used as part of a CBT approach, it is unlikely that the resulting course will be truly competency-based.
Models and Simulations in CBT
Models and simulations are used extensively in competency-based training courses. Airplane pilots first learn to fly in a simulator. Supervisors first learn to provide feedback to employees using role plays during training. Individuals learning to administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) practice this procedure on a model of a human (mannequin).
Satur and Gupta (1994) developed a model which facilitates skill development in performing and evaluating coronary anastomoses with an angioscope. The results of their study indicate that models are proving invaluable as a training tool. George H. Buck in a 1991 historical review of the use of simulators in medical education concluded that “Given the developments in this technology within the last 50 years, it is possible that the use of simulators will increase in the future, should the need arise to teach new concepts and procedures at set times to large groups of individuals” (p. 24). Researchers in two different experimental studies involving training people to perform breast self-examinations (BSE) compared several methods and found that using models was the most effective training method (Campbell et. al., 1991 and Assaf et. al., 1985). In a multicenter evaluation of training of physicians in the use of 30-cm flexible sigmoidoscopy, Weissman et al (1987) found that they were easily trained by first practicing on plastic colon models.
Norton (1987) believes that participants in a competency-based training course should learn in an environment that duplicates or simulates the work place. Richards (1985) in writing about performance testing indicates that assessment of skills requires tests using simulations (e.g., models and role plays) or work samples (i.e., performing actual tasks under controlled conditions in either a laboratory or a job setting). Finally, Delker (1990) in a study of business and industry found that the best approach for training involved learner-centered instruction using print, instructional technology and simulations.
Evaluation and Assessment in CBT
Evaluation in traditional courses typically involves administering knowledge-based tests. While knowledge-based assessments can certainly be used in CBT to measure mastery of information, the primary focus is on measuring mastery of skills. In keeping with this, Thomson (1991) reports that the decision to recognize a performance as satisfactory and to determine competence should be the basis for success of a competency-based program. Moreover, Foyster (1990) argues that assessment in competency-based programs must be criterion-referenced with the criterion being the competencies upon which the program is based. Finally, Richards (1985) indicates that simulation and work sample performance tests should include a checklist or some type of rating scale.
Implications for Using CBT
In a 1990 study of three operating competency-based programs, Anthony Watson identified a number of implications for organizations considering implementing a CBT system:
* Organizations must be committed to providing adequate resources and training materials.
* Audiovisual materials need to be directly related to the written materials.
* Training activities need to match the objectives.
* Continuous participant interaction and feedback must take place.
* Trainers must be trained to conduct competency-based training courses.
* Individuals attending training must be prepared for CBT as this approach is likely to be very different from their past educational and training experiences.
JHPIEGO’s Approach to CBT
JHPIEGO Corporation has adopted a competency-based approach to conducting clinical training in selected reproductive health practices. Based on the principles summarized in this paper, JHPIEGO’s approach to CBT involves key activities which occur during the design, delivery and evaluation of training courses. These activities are summarized here and explained in detail in JHPIEGO’s Clinical Training Skills for Reproductive Health Professionals and Advanced Training Skills for Reproductive Health Professionals reference manuals.
The key activities around which JHPIEGO’s competency-based training is built include design, delivery and evaluation activities. The components of each are summarized in Table 2 and Table 3.
Table 2. Design Activities
* Identification of the specific clinical skills (e.g., IUD, Norplant implants, counseling, infection prevention or minilaparotomy) that will form the basis of a competency-based training course.
* Identification of the conditions (e.g., using models, role plays, clients) under which the skills must be demonstrated.
* Development of the criteria or standards to which the skills must be performed.
* Development of the competency-based learning guides and checklists which list each of the steps and sequence (if necessary) required to perform each skill or activity.
* Development of reference manuals which contain the essential, need-to-know information related to the skills to be developed.
* Development of models (e.g., Zoe pelvic model, Norplant implants training arm) to be used during training.
* Development of training objectives which outline what the participant must do in order to master the clinical skills.
* Development of course outlines which match a variety of training methods and supporting media to course objectives.
* Development of course syllabi and schedules which contain information about the course and which can be sent to
Table 3. Delivery and Evaluation Activities
* Administration of a precourse questionnaire to assess the participants’ knowledge and attitudes about course content.
* Administration of precourse skill assessments using models to ensure participants possess the entry level skills (e.g., able to perform a pelvic exam if learning to insert IUDs) to complete the course successfully and role plays to determine the level of their communication (counseling) skills.
* Delivery of the course by a trainer/facilitator using an interactive and participatory approach.
* Transfer of skills from the trainer to the participants through clinical and counseling skill demonstrations using slide sets, videotapes, models, role plays and finally, clients.
* Development of the participants’ skills using a humanistic approach, which means participants acquire the skill and then practice until competent using anatomic models and role plays.
* Practice of the skills following the steps in the learning guide until the participant becomes competent at performing the skill. During this time the trainer functions as a coach providing continuous feedback and reinforcement to participants. Only when participants are assessed and determined to be competent on a model do they work with clients.
* Presentation of supporting information and theory through interactive and participatory classroom sessions using a variety of methods and audiovisuals.
* Administration of a midcourse questionnaire to determine if the participants have mastered the new knowledge associated with the clinical skills.
* Guided practice in providing all components of the clinical service.
* Evaluation of each participant’s performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, practice and clinical skills) with clients. The evaluation by the trainer is performed using competency-based checklists. The participant is either qualified or not qualified as a result of the knowledge, attitude and skills assessments.
* Presentation of a statement of qualification which identifies the specific clinical service the individual is qualified to provide.
Transfer of Training
JHPIEGO uses a four-step process to transfer specific clinical skills and knowledge from experts to service providers. These steps are part of the process of developing a family planning training system within a country. The four steps include:
* Standardizing provision of clinical services and modifying and adapting JHPIEGO training materials as necessary
* Training service providers to provide these services competently, according to the approved standards
* Identifying and preparing proficient service providers to function as clinical skill trainers so they are able to train other service providers
* Identifying and preparing clinical skill trainers to function as advanced and eventually master trainers so that they are able to train other clinical skill trainers, evaluate training and develop or revise course materials
The first step is to standardize the clinical skill(s) to be used in the delivery of family planning services. For example, in a country there may be a need to train clinicians to perform IUD insertions and removals. The first activity conducted is to identify and observe a group of clinicians who are performing these procedures. The steps the clinicians perform are observed and compared to the standard approach outlined in JHPIEGO’s competency-based IUD learning guides and checklists. This observation process gives JHPIEGO trainers an idea of the skill levels of those who will be trained to be service providers. As necessary, JHPIEGO’s learning guides and checklists are modified to meet the specific service delivery standards or norms within the host country. The standardized procedure then forms the basis for the service provider training courses conducted within the country.
The second step is to train a specific group of service providers to perform the standardized clinical skills. The clinical skills course is based on a training package (see Figure 1) consisting of a reference manual, supporting audiovisuals, anatomic models, and trainer and participant handbooks (which contain the learning guides and checklists based on the standardized procedure). Following the clinical skills course, these competent service providers provide clinical services to clients. After providing services for a period of time, a group of the most proficient service providers who have demonstrated an interest and willingness to become clinical trainers undergo training skills training.
Figure 1
The third step in the transfer process is to prepare a group of proficient service providers to be clinical skill trainers. These service providers attend a clinical training skills course which also is based on a training package. During this course, participants will have their clinical knowledge updated and skills assessed and standardized to ensure they are proficient at performing the clinical skill. Participants will then learn how to demonstrate clinical skills, transfer knowledge and skills during training, function as clinical coaches, and use competency-based learning guides and checklists to assess participant performance. Following the clinical training skills course these clinical skill trainers conduct service provider training courses. During their first service provider course they either co-train with an advanced (or master) clinical trainer or are observed by a training skills trainer.
The final step in the process of transferring skills is to prepare a small group of proficient clinical skill trainers to become advanced trainers. These clinical skill trainers attend an advanced training skills course which is also based on a training package. During this course, participants learn how to conduct needs assessments, design training courses, facilitate the group dynamics occurring during a course, and evaluate training. Following the advanced training skills course these advanced trainers conduct clinical training skills courses. During their first several training courses they cotrain with a master trainer. After successfully delivering several training skills courses these individuals can be qualified to function as a master trainer.
Summary
Based on the concepts and principles presented in this paper, the key features of JHPIEGO’s approach to training include:
* Development of competencies (knowledge, attitude and practice) is based on national standards.
* Quality of performance is built into the training process.
* Emphasis of the training is on development of qualified providers, not on the number of clinicians undergoing training.
* Training builds competency and confidence because participants know what level of performance is expected, how knowledge and skills will be evaluated, that progression through training is self-paced, and that there are opportunities for practice until mastery is achieved.
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Competency-based education is a systematic but flexible learning process which focuses on defining in measurable terms what students are to learn. Expected behaviors, conditions for their performance, and acceptable standards are specified in advance. Mastery of competencies is determined by evaluation of knowledge and skills utilizing varied assessment methods. Credit for prior learning may be demonstrated through competency validation measures such as testing, demonstration and evaluation of skills, portfolio documentation and evaluation, and employer verification. Competency-based learning objectives may be packaged in varied formats for traditional and alternative delivery approaches.
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ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
COMPOSANTES DE LA COMPETENCE COMMUNICATIVE
End of level ISCED 1 – End of primary - Fin du niveau CITE 1 - Fin du primaire
A. LINGUISTIC COMPETENCES - LA COMPOSANTE LINGUISTIQUE
CODE
1. Lexical competence - La compétence lexicale
001
* master a vocabulary that is adequate to express knowledge, experience, perceptions, emotions and personal opinions.
* talk abut how the choice of words, the use of ones voice and intonation create different meaning in a text (competence aim after Year 2)
002
* understand written and oral instructions of reasonable difficulty
* distinguish standard words and their non-standard forms
003
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To identify processes of lexical enrichment of the Portuguese language
* To identify word formation irregular processes and lexical innovation
* To deduce the meaning of words from their context
005
* Express oneself orally through texts which present knowledge, facts and opinions coherently
* Narrate, explain, describe, summarise, and present opinions and information in written texts related to everyday and school situations in an ordered and satisfactory way
NB: Notice that there is not explicit lexicon in our curriculum as it is related with oral and written expression in meaningful contexts
006
* identify vocabulary - words and their word-forms
* form words from given common syntactic roots/stems (word formation)
* are able to use lexical aids (dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses) in written and electronic form
007
* utiliser un vocabulaire précis, varié et adapté
* mobiliser ses connaissances lexicales et grammaticales
2. Grammatical competence - La compétence grammaticale
001
* describe language and the use of language, parts of speech and their functions.
* vary syntax
002
* identify the root, suffix, prefix and ending in a word
* distinguish parts of speech in their basic form
* master basic examples of morpho-syntactic agreement
003
* remarquer au sein des contextes les concordances fondamentales entre les mots et organiser graduellement ces remarques dans des schémas morphologiques (flexions, modifications)
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To identify the immediate constituents of sentences
* To classify relations between immediate constituents of sentences and their syntactic functions
* To differentiate the main syntactic processes of articulation between complex sentences
005
* Understand and use basic grammatical and linguistic terminology in activities of text production and comprehension. Conceptualization of grammatical elements that allow the use of dictionaries
* Narrate, explain, describe, summarise, and present opinions and information in written texts taking care with grammar and spelling rules and formal aspects, whether on paper or in digital format.
* Recognise narrative, instructive, descriptive and explanatory structures for comprehension and composition
NB: Grammatical competence in our curriculum includes contents related to reflection on language and the acquisition of some concepts and of a grammar terminology. The presence of grammar is justified by the fact that the acquisition of language and communication skills requires reflection on different aspects of language and grammar content should be taken into account in order to improve skills in the use of the language.
006
* they are able to formulate sentences from words, groups of sentences from sentences by observing semantic and formative relations
* they rid of “critical points” in their practical mastery of grammar
* identify individual parts of sentence
007
* Associer les unités lexicales et grammaticales au sein des phrases
* Utiliser le temps des verbes, les connecteurs et/ou marqueurs de relation afin de repérer la chronologie des événements
* Phrase interrogative avec génitif (Wessen ?) ; Genre des noms et des adjectifs (accusatif, datif, génitif) ; Prépositions avec génitif (wegen, trotz, statt, während, …) ; Présent, passé composé, imparfait, impératif, futur, infinitif ; Verbes faibles et forts ; Verbes modaux ; Verbes composés
3. Semantic competence - La compétence sémantique
001
* express thoughts on language, characters and plots in texts from daily life and from fiction from various times and cultures.
* recognise and use linguistic techniques such as repetition, contrast and simple metaphors and images.
002
* compare word meanings, particularly synonyms or partial synonyms, and homonyms and polyseme
* recognise the main ideas and details in a text suitable to the given age, take notes on the main ideas
003
* être attentif aux correspondances sémantiques et lexicales entre les parlers locaux, les patois, proches de la langue
004
* To identify different meanings of the same word in different contexts
* To set relations between different lexical and grammatical categories
* To identify the aim of the speaker in a utterance, considering the context
005
* Compare various syntactical structures to observe their semantic equivalents and potential changes in meaning
* Explore the possibilities of joining sentences in different ways (cause, consequence, purpose, contrast, condition...) in relation to text composition
006
* are able to explain the meaning of the given word/word phrase from the text
* are able to select appropriate and effective vocabulary corresponding to the meaning (when producing texts)
* they are aware that the meaning of the word affects the meaning of the text
007
* Élaborer et consulter des outils collectifs et/ou individuels de référence (liste de mots, règles…)
* réviser ses textes, s’il est renseigné sur les aspects perfectibles de son texte, en mobilisant ses connaissances lexicales, syntaxiques et orthographiques essentielles
4. Orthographic competence - La compétence orthographique
001 ---
002
* write simple types of communication correctly both in terms of content and form
* write i/y correctly in words after ambiguous consonants
* master basic examples of morpho-syntactic agreement
003
* posséder autant que possible les éléments et les règles fondamentales de l'orthographe
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To use orthographic and punctuation rules appropriately
* To disambiguate meanings resulting from the sound and the spelling of a word
* To use punctuation to represent types of sentences
005 Use of common spelling rules and the resolution of doubts about spelling by using the appropriate tools (dictionaries, notes …), whether it be on paper or digital.
006
* observe spelling, technical accuracy of syntax in phrases, clauses, sentences, texts and note deviations from standards
* use spelling and punctuation aids (in written and electronic form)
007 Orthographier correctement un capital mots de grande fréquence en relation avec les thèmes travaillés en classe (Schreibwortschatz)
5. Phonological competence - La compétence phonologique
001 describe similarities and differences between a selection of spoken varieties of the Norwegian language
002
* recognise a word’s phonetic and graphic forms, segment words into phonemes, distinguish between long and short vowels
* select proper intonation, stress, pauses and pace depending on the focus of his/her communicative intent
* distinguish between standard and non-standard pronunciation and use it properly depending on the situation
003 (*) La programmation didactique doit consacrer une place importante aux activités de formation et production de sons, à la recherche et à l'exploration de timbres de la voix, à l'emploi de la voix d'après différents modèles d'expression. C'est un ensemble d'activités à réaliser compte tenu de l'apprentissage de deux langues et donc:
* des traits phonologiques de chacune d'elles;
* de la priorité, attestée et reconnue, des traits mélodiques dans la formation bilingue (intonation, rythme, accent);
* des interférences linguistiques dérivant de différentes structures d'intonation, de la caractérisation verbale, de l'articulation, de la syllabation et de l'accentuation de chaque langue.
NB : tiré du paragraphe consacré à Education au son et à la musique
004
* To pronounce sounds correctly
* To understand the way different sounds can link into each other to form words
* To identify the smallest sound units which can make a difference to meaning
005 Show an interest in expressing oneself through speaking with appropriate pronunciation and expression
006
* practise and master pronunciation of formal language (words, sentences and texts)
* try to speak as formally as possible in conversation and during the intercourse with their teachers
* try to speak as formally as possible in conversation and during the intercourse with their teachers
007
* articuler clairement et correctement pour assurer une bonne intelligibilité
* Recourir à des éléments prosodiques, mimiques et gestuels
B. SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCE – LA COMPOSANTE SOCIOLINGUISTIQUE
001
* explain how a person might offend others through language use
* describe language and the use of language, parts of speech and their functions
002
* adhere to basic communication rules in a conversation
* select suitable verbal as well as non-verbal means of expression in everyday situations both at school and outside of school
* distinguish communicative sentence types in a text and form them using proper linguistic and phonetic means
003
* être attentif aux correspondances sémantiques et lexicales entre les parlers locaux, les patois, proches de la langue
* distinguer les différences d'accent présentes dans la classe et dans son entourage social immédiat
004
* To distinguish geographical, social and historical contexts which origin different varieties of the Portuguese language
* To identify features of standard language
* To speak fluently and accurately in most situations, using verbal and non-verbal resources, with a complexity appropriate to the situations of communication
005
* Positive awareness of the linguistic variety in the school and wider social context.
* Know the locations of Spain’s languages and show a positive evaluation of this linguistic richness, avoiding prejudices about the languages and their speakers
* Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences
006
* they monitor their own and other communication in Slovene in different contexts and evaluate appropriatness in the given contexts
* they detect and identify their own and other stylistic mistakes, reduce them and support their corrections with arguments
* they use different speech techniques (the same oral activity in different ways), appreciate/evaluate politeness
007
* Respecter les règles de la politesse (ne pas interrompre les autres, écouter)
* Valoriser les propos d’autrui (signes de tête, gestes supportants)
C. PRAGMATIC COMPETENCES - LA COMPOSANTE PRAGMATIQUE
1. Discursive competence - La compétence discursive
001
* lay out a text with a heading, an introduction and a conclusion.
002
* create an outline of a narration and prepare a short oral or written expression based on it while preserving chronological sequence
* use appropriate connectives and vary them as required by the utterance
003
* rendre les conversations et les discours intéressants
* avoir un discours cohérent et dialoguer avec efficacité
004
* To combine utterances in coherent and cohesive texts
* To use a range of words which are relevant for the subject
* To explain the meaning of figurative expressions
005 Ability to express oneself clearly in an organised, coherent way, according to the genre and communicative situation. Students should be able to select the relevant contents and express them using the lexis and formulas appropriate to these situations, such as tone of voice, body language and gestures
006 identify parts of text (paragraphs)
007
* Suivre le développement du texte, sa structure, repérer des étapes, des passages importants dans un texte
* Résumer des passages, créer soi-même une structure en créant de nouveaux titres intermédiaires
* Identifier les traces de la structure du texte (p.ex. en soulignant des titres et des sous-titres, les mots de liaison…)
2. Functional competence - La compétence fonctionnelle
001 write stories, poems, letters and factual prose
002
* express oneself according to the communication situation: greetings, addressing, apologies, requests, messages, announcements, narration, polite presentation, descriptions,
* congratulations, invitation,
003
* produire des textes axés sur la description, le récit, l'argumentation et la spontanéité
* (*) On écrit en fonction des besoins: les élèves prennent des notes, rédigent des rapports, font des interviews et des sondages, organisent des recherches (selon les contenus des différentes matières).
004
* To ask for information and complementary explanation
* To ask questions, to make requests, to give an opinion, to justify a point of view
005 Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences
006
* identify visual and audio non-verbal elements that accompany speech, present their role in speaking activity /conversation and their impact on listeners/interlocutors
* compare non-verbal elements that accompany speech in conversations and talks
* observe non-verbal written messages (pictograms, graphs, maps, photographs), and present their intelligibility and effectiveness
007 ---
3. Interactive competence - La compétence interactionnelle
001
* assess and compare his or her own texts and those of others
002
* correctly conduct a dialogue, a telephone conversation, leave a message on an answering machine (on voicemail)
* select suitable verbal as well as non-verbal means of expression in everyday situations both at school and outside of school
003
* communiquer par écrit avec des interlocuteurs différents d'une manière toujours plus articulée et complète, dans le contenu et dans la forme
* considérer dans son ensemble la pensée de ses interlocuteurs et y découvrir tout ce qu'elle recèle d'ordinaire, d'essentiel, d'original
004
* To interact spontaneously and confidently in informal communicative situations
* To contribute effectively to class or group work in gradually formal situations
005
* Ability to establish satisfactory social relationships with others, as well as ability to initiate, sustain and end conversations with peers
* Valuing and respecting the rules of oral interaction: turn-taking, different roles in the exchange, appropriate tone of voice, body language and gestures
* Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences. Adopt a critical attitude toward any message which implies any kind of discrimination
006 adapt the same texts to different listeners and explain their adaptations
007 ----
CODE Any comments - Commentaires éventuels
001 There seems to be considerable overlap between the C sub-categories . We have therefore chose not to break down the assessment of Pragmatic competences (pour le tableau 2.2.2.)
003 L’emploi de la couleur rouge intervient lorsqu’un même descripteur est répété sous diverses « rubriques » et elle indique la partie, pour chaque rubrique, ce qui la concerne directement.
La couleur bordeaux est utilisée pour signaler dans les descripteurs (ou similaires) en langues une référence aux autres matières.
(*) Ce signe n’indique pas de descripteurs véritables, mais des citations repérées dans les programmes. Il a été décidé de les signaler car elles pourraient facilement être transformées en descripteurs.
004 Communicative competence does not seem to be the most accurate term (there is communication in all the other competences). The division into Linguistic Competence, Sociolinguistic Competence and Pragmatics Competence could be reconsidered – the two last ones are part of the linguistic competence, not separate competences at the same level.
Also, within the Linguistic competence, there seems to be mixed plans: grammar competence is not at the same level of the others (lexical, semantic, orthographic, and phonological). Grammar is about the knowledge of the norms concerning these levels and others. We have norms for the lexis, the semantics, the orthography and the phonology. And what about syntax and morphology?
We recommend that this organization to be reviewed by a linguistic. We can recommend a Portuguese researcher with a very strong curriculum – Professor João Costa - jcosta@fcsh.unl.pt .
005 The following descriptors are adjusted to the curricula aims and goals for each triennium
006 Compétence fonctionnelle et interactionnelle : L'introduction du Plan d'études spécifie que toutes les activités langagières doivent s'inscrire dans un contexte concret, en relation avec le vécu des apprenants.
The Competency-Based Approach to Training
JHPIEGO Strategy Paper • September 1995
Prepared by Rick Sullivan, PhD
Director, Training Office, JHPIEGO Corporation
* What is CBT?
* Characteristics of CBT
* Advantages and Limitations of CBT
* Models and Simulations of CBT
* Evaluation and Assessment in CBT
* Implications for Using CBT
* JHPIEGO's Approach to CBT
* Transfer of Training
* Summary
* References
* Credits
* Printer-friendly version
(Adobe® Acrobat®)(39k)
Throughout the world, millions of students go to school every day. These students study subjects such as science, language and mathematics in courses usually scheduled to last the duration of the school year. Because progression through the various subjects in school is time-based, at any given time during the year the teacher is expected to be at a specific point in the textbook or course content. While not every student may progress at the same rate, the schedule typically requires everyone to move at the same rate as the teacher. Tests are administered periodically to ensure students understand the concepts and principles. Test scores often are compared to determine the grades of the students. Unfortunately, when a student does not do well on a test there often is little time for individual assistance as the teacher must move on in order to adhere to the established time schedule.
While traditional, time-based approaches to education have met with varying levels of success over the years, it is an ineffective system when the goal is to train individuals to perform specific, job-related skills. For example, an active, certified airline pilot is attending a 3-week training course to learn to fly a new type of aircraft. Will attending all sessions during the course ensure the pilot can fly the plane? Of course not! If the pilot is unable to attend 2 days of the course, does this mean the pilot cannot fly the plane? Probably not. After 4 days, the pilot does poorly on a written test. Should the pilot immediately fail the course or should the pilot continue with assistance and be given the opportunity to be tested again? If the pilot can pass all written tests does this indicate that the pilot can fly the plane? No! In addition to assessing knowledge, an evaluation of the pilot’s skills also is required.
Obviously, the time-based educational system used in schools and universities is not appropriate when conducting training. A more appropriate approach is competency-based training (CBT).
What is CBT?
In a traditional educational system, the unit of progression is time and it is teacher-centered. In a CBT system, the unit of progression is mastery of specific knowledge and skills and is learner- or participant-centered. Two key terms used in competency-based training are:
* Skill—A task or group of tasks performed to a specific level of competency or proficiency which often use motor functions and typically require the manipulation of instruments and equipment (e.g., IUD insertion or Norplant ® implants removal). Some skills, however, such as counseling, are knowledge- and attitude-based.
* Competency—A skill performed to a specific standard under specific conditions.
There appears to be substantial support for competency-based training. Norton (1987) believes that competency-based training should be used as opposed to the “medieval concept of time-based learning.” Foyster (1990) argues that using the traditional “school” model for training is inefficient. After in-depth examinations of three competency-based programs, Anthony Watson (1990) concluded that competency-based instruction has tremendous potential for training in industry. Moreover, in a 1990 study of basic skills education programs in business and industry, Paul Delker found that successful training programs were competency-based.
A competent clinician (e.g., physician, nurse, midwife, medical assistant) is one who is able to perform a clinical skill to a satisfactory standard. Competency-based training for reproductive health professionals then is training based upon the participant’s ability to demonstrate attainment or mastery of clinical skills performed under certain conditions to specific standards (the skills then become competencies). Norton (1987) describes five essential elements of a CBT system:
* Competencies to be achieved are carefully identified, verified and made public in advance.
* Criteria to be used in assessing achievement and the conditions under which achievement will be assessed are explicitly stated and made public in advance.
* The instructional program provides for the individual development and evaluation of each of the competencies specified.
* Assessment of competency takes the participant’s knowledge and attitudes into account but requires actual performance of the competency as the primary source of evidence.
* Participants progress through the instructional program at their own rate by demonstrating the attainment of the specified competencies.
Characteristics of CBT
How does one identify a competency-based training program? In addition to a set of competencies, what other characteristics are associated with CBT? According to Foyster (1990), Delker (1990) and Norton (1987) there are a number of characteristics of competency-based programs. Key characteristics are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of Competency-Based Training Programs
* Competencies are carefully selected.
* Supporting theory is integrated with skill practice. Essential knowledge is learned to support the performance of skills.
* Detailed training materials are keyed to the competencies to be achieved and are designed to support the acquisition of knowledge and skills.
* Methods of instruction involve mastery learning, the premise that all participants can master the required knowledge or skill, provided sufficient time and appropriate training methods are used.
* Participants’ knowledge and skills are assessed as they enter the program and those with satisfactory knowledge and skills may bypass training or competencies already attained.
* Learning should be self-paced.
* Flexible training approaches including large group methods, small group activities and individual study are essential components.
* A variety of support materials including print, audiovisual and simulations (models) keyed to the skills being mastered are used.
* Satisfactory completion of training is based on achievement of all specified competencies.
Advantages and Limitations of CBT
One of the primary advantages of CBT is that the focus is on the success of each participant. Watson (1990) states that the competency-based approach “appears especially useful in training situations where trainees have to attain a small number of specific and job-related competencies” (page 18). Benefits of CBT identified by Norton (1987) include:
* Participants will achieve competencies required in the performance of their jobs.
* Participants build confidence as they succeed in mastering specific competencies.
* Participants receive a transcript or list of the competencies they have achieved.
* Training time is used more efficiently and effectively as the trainer is a facilitator of learning as opposed to a provider of information.
* More training time is devoted to working with participants individually or in small groups as opposed to presenting lectures.
* More training time is devoted to evaluating each participant’s ability to perform essential job skills.
While there are a number of advantages of competency-based training, there also are some potential limitations. Prior to implementing CBT, it is important to consider these limitations:
* Unless initial training and followup assistance is provided for the trainers, there is a tendency to “teach as we were taught” and CBT trainers quickly slip back into the role of the traditional teacher.
* A CBT course is only as effective as the process used to identify the competencies. When little or no attention is given to identification of the essential job skills, then the resulting training course is likely to be ineffective.
* A course may be classified as competency-based, but unless specific CBT materials and training approaches (e.g., learning guides, checklists and coaching) are designed to be used as part of a CBT approach, it is unlikely that the resulting course will be truly competency-based.
Models and Simulations in CBT
Models and simulations are used extensively in competency-based training courses. Airplane pilots first learn to fly in a simulator. Supervisors first learn to provide feedback to employees using role plays during training. Individuals learning to administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) practice this procedure on a model of a human (mannequin).
Satur and Gupta (1994) developed a model which facilitates skill development in performing and evaluating coronary anastomoses with an angioscope. The results of their study indicate that models are proving invaluable as a training tool. George H. Buck in a 1991 historical review of the use of simulators in medical education concluded that “Given the developments in this technology within the last 50 years, it is possible that the use of simulators will increase in the future, should the need arise to teach new concepts and procedures at set times to large groups of individuals” (p. 24). Researchers in two different experimental studies involving training people to perform breast self-examinations (BSE) compared several methods and found that using models was the most effective training method (Campbell et. al., 1991 and Assaf et. al., 1985). In a multicenter evaluation of training of physicians in the use of 30-cm flexible sigmoidoscopy, Weissman et al (1987) found that they were easily trained by first practicing on plastic colon models.
Norton (1987) believes that participants in a competency-based training course should learn in an environment that duplicates or simulates the work place. Richards (1985) in writing about performance testing indicates that assessment of skills requires tests using simulations (e.g., models and role plays) or work samples (i.e., performing actual tasks under controlled conditions in either a laboratory or a job setting). Finally, Delker (1990) in a study of business and industry found that the best approach for training involved learner-centered instruction using print, instructional technology and simulations.
Evaluation and Assessment in CBT
Evaluation in traditional courses typically involves administering knowledge-based tests. While knowledge-based assessments can certainly be used in CBT to measure mastery of information, the primary focus is on measuring mastery of skills. In keeping with this, Thomson (1991) reports that the decision to recognize a performance as satisfactory and to determine competence should be the basis for success of a competency-based program. Moreover, Foyster (1990) argues that assessment in competency-based programs must be criterion-referenced with the criterion being the competencies upon which the program is based. Finally, Richards (1985) indicates that simulation and work sample performance tests should include a checklist or some type of rating scale.
Implications for Using CBT
In a 1990 study of three operating competency-based programs, Anthony Watson identified a number of implications for organizations considering implementing a CBT system:
* Organizations must be committed to providing adequate resources and training materials.
* Audiovisual materials need to be directly related to the written materials.
* Training activities need to match the objectives.
* Continuous participant interaction and feedback must take place.
* Trainers must be trained to conduct competency-based training courses.
* Individuals attending training must be prepared for CBT as this approach is likely to be very different from their past educational and training experiences.
JHPIEGO’s Approach to CBT
JHPIEGO Corporation has adopted a competency-based approach to conducting clinical training in selected reproductive health practices. Based on the principles summarized in this paper, JHPIEGO’s approach to CBT involves key activities which occur during the design, delivery and evaluation of training courses. These activities are summarized here and explained in detail in JHPIEGO’s Clinical Training Skills for Reproductive Health Professionals and Advanced Training Skills for Reproductive Health Professionals reference manuals.
The key activities around which JHPIEGO’s competency-based training is built include design, delivery and evaluation activities. The components of each are summarized in Table 2 and Table 3.
Table 2. Design Activities
* Identification of the specific clinical skills (e.g., IUD, Norplant implants, counseling, infection prevention or minilaparotomy) that will form the basis of a competency-based training course.
* Identification of the conditions (e.g., using models, role plays, clients) under which the skills must be demonstrated.
* Development of the criteria or standards to which the skills must be performed.
* Development of the competency-based learning guides and checklists which list each of the steps and sequence (if necessary) required to perform each skill or activity.
* Development of reference manuals which contain the essential, need-to-know information related to the skills to be developed.
* Development of models (e.g., Zoe pelvic model, Norplant implants training arm) to be used during training.
* Development of training objectives which outline what the participant must do in order to master the clinical skills.
* Development of course outlines which match a variety of training methods and supporting media to course objectives.
* Development of course syllabi and schedules which contain information about the course and which can be sent to
Table 3. Delivery and Evaluation Activities
* Administration of a precourse questionnaire to assess the participants’ knowledge and attitudes about course content.
* Administration of precourse skill assessments using models to ensure participants possess the entry level skills (e.g., able to perform a pelvic exam if learning to insert IUDs) to complete the course successfully and role plays to determine the level of their communication (counseling) skills.
* Delivery of the course by a trainer/facilitator using an interactive and participatory approach.
* Transfer of skills from the trainer to the participants through clinical and counseling skill demonstrations using slide sets, videotapes, models, role plays and finally, clients.
* Development of the participants’ skills using a humanistic approach, which means participants acquire the skill and then practice until competent using anatomic models and role plays.
* Practice of the skills following the steps in the learning guide until the participant becomes competent at performing the skill. During this time the trainer functions as a coach providing continuous feedback and reinforcement to participants. Only when participants are assessed and determined to be competent on a model do they work with clients.
* Presentation of supporting information and theory through interactive and participatory classroom sessions using a variety of methods and audiovisuals.
* Administration of a midcourse questionnaire to determine if the participants have mastered the new knowledge associated with the clinical skills.
* Guided practice in providing all components of the clinical service.
* Evaluation of each participant’s performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, practice and clinical skills) with clients. The evaluation by the trainer is performed using competency-based checklists. The participant is either qualified or not qualified as a result of the knowledge, attitude and skills assessments.
* Presentation of a statement of qualification which identifies the specific clinical service the individual is qualified to provide.
Transfer of Training
JHPIEGO uses a four-step process to transfer specific clinical skills and knowledge from experts to service providers. These steps are part of the process of developing a family planning training system within a country. The four steps include:
* Standardizing provision of clinical services and modifying and adapting JHPIEGO training materials as necessary
* Training service providers to provide these services competently, according to the approved standards
* Identifying and preparing proficient service providers to function as clinical skill trainers so they are able to train other service providers
* Identifying and preparing clinical skill trainers to function as advanced and eventually master trainers so that they are able to train other clinical skill trainers, evaluate training and develop or revise course materials
The first step is to standardize the clinical skill(s) to be used in the delivery of family planning services. For example, in a country there may be a need to train clinicians to perform IUD insertions and removals. The first activity conducted is to identify and observe a group of clinicians who are performing these procedures. The steps the clinicians perform are observed and compared to the standard approach outlined in JHPIEGO’s competency-based IUD learning guides and checklists. This observation process gives JHPIEGO trainers an idea of the skill levels of those who will be trained to be service providers. As necessary, JHPIEGO’s learning guides and checklists are modified to meet the specific service delivery standards or norms within the host country. The standardized procedure then forms the basis for the service provider training courses conducted within the country.
The second step is to train a specific group of service providers to perform the standardized clinical skills. The clinical skills course is based on a training package (see Figure 1) consisting of a reference manual, supporting audiovisuals, anatomic models, and trainer and participant handbooks (which contain the learning guides and checklists based on the standardized procedure). Following the clinical skills course, these competent service providers provide clinical services to clients. After providing services for a period of time, a group of the most proficient service providers who have demonstrated an interest and willingness to become clinical trainers undergo training skills training.
Figure 1
The third step in the transfer process is to prepare a group of proficient service providers to be clinical skill trainers. These service providers attend a clinical training skills course which also is based on a training package. During this course, participants will have their clinical knowledge updated and skills assessed and standardized to ensure they are proficient at performing the clinical skill. Participants will then learn how to demonstrate clinical skills, transfer knowledge and skills during training, function as clinical coaches, and use competency-based learning guides and checklists to assess participant performance. Following the clinical training skills course these clinical skill trainers conduct service provider training courses. During their first service provider course they either co-train with an advanced (or master) clinical trainer or are observed by a training skills trainer.
The final step in the process of transferring skills is to prepare a small group of proficient clinical skill trainers to become advanced trainers. These clinical skill trainers attend an advanced training skills course which is also based on a training package. During this course, participants learn how to conduct needs assessments, design training courses, facilitate the group dynamics occurring during a course, and evaluate training. Following the advanced training skills course these advanced trainers conduct clinical training skills courses. During their first several training courses they cotrain with a master trainer. After successfully delivering several training skills courses these individuals can be qualified to function as a master trainer.
Summary
Based on the concepts and principles presented in this paper, the key features of JHPIEGO’s approach to training include:
* Development of competencies (knowledge, attitude and practice) is based on national standards.
* Quality of performance is built into the training process.
* Emphasis of the training is on development of qualified providers, not on the number of clinicians undergoing training.
* Training builds competency and confidence because participants know what level of performance is expected, how knowledge and skills will be evaluated, that progression through training is self-paced, and that there are opportunities for practice until mastery is achieved.
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Competency-based education is a systematic but flexible learning process which focuses on defining in measurable terms what students are to learn. Expected behaviors, conditions for their performance, and acceptable standards are specified in advance. Mastery of competencies is determined by evaluation of knowledge and skills utilizing varied assessment methods. Credit for prior learning may be demonstrated through competency validation measures such as testing, demonstration and evaluation of skills, portfolio documentation and evaluation, and employer verification. Competency-based learning objectives may be packaged in varied formats for traditional and alternative delivery approaches.
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ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
COMPOSANTES DE LA COMPETENCE COMMUNICATIVE
End of level ISCED 1 – End of primary - Fin du niveau CITE 1 - Fin du primaire
A. LINGUISTIC COMPETENCES - LA COMPOSANTE LINGUISTIQUE
CODE
1. Lexical competence - La compétence lexicale
001
* master a vocabulary that is adequate to express knowledge, experience, perceptions, emotions and personal opinions.
* talk abut how the choice of words, the use of ones voice and intonation create different meaning in a text (competence aim after Year 2)
002
* understand written and oral instructions of reasonable difficulty
* distinguish standard words and their non-standard forms
003
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To identify processes of lexical enrichment of the Portuguese language
* To identify word formation irregular processes and lexical innovation
* To deduce the meaning of words from their context
005
* Express oneself orally through texts which present knowledge, facts and opinions coherently
* Narrate, explain, describe, summarise, and present opinions and information in written texts related to everyday and school situations in an ordered and satisfactory way
NB: Notice that there is not explicit lexicon in our curriculum as it is related with oral and written expression in meaningful contexts
006
* identify vocabulary - words and their word-forms
* form words from given common syntactic roots/stems (word formation)
* are able to use lexical aids (dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses) in written and electronic form
007
* utiliser un vocabulaire précis, varié et adapté
* mobiliser ses connaissances lexicales et grammaticales
2. Grammatical competence - La compétence grammaticale
001
* describe language and the use of language, parts of speech and their functions.
* vary syntax
002
* identify the root, suffix, prefix and ending in a word
* distinguish parts of speech in their basic form
* master basic examples of morpho-syntactic agreement
003
* remarquer au sein des contextes les concordances fondamentales entre les mots et organiser graduellement ces remarques dans des schémas morphologiques (flexions, modifications)
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To identify the immediate constituents of sentences
* To classify relations between immediate constituents of sentences and their syntactic functions
* To differentiate the main syntactic processes of articulation between complex sentences
005
* Understand and use basic grammatical and linguistic terminology in activities of text production and comprehension. Conceptualization of grammatical elements that allow the use of dictionaries
* Narrate, explain, describe, summarise, and present opinions and information in written texts taking care with grammar and spelling rules and formal aspects, whether on paper or in digital format.
* Recognise narrative, instructive, descriptive and explanatory structures for comprehension and composition
NB: Grammatical competence in our curriculum includes contents related to reflection on language and the acquisition of some concepts and of a grammar terminology. The presence of grammar is justified by the fact that the acquisition of language and communication skills requires reflection on different aspects of language and grammar content should be taken into account in order to improve skills in the use of the language.
006
* they are able to formulate sentences from words, groups of sentences from sentences by observing semantic and formative relations
* they rid of “critical points” in their practical mastery of grammar
* identify individual parts of sentence
007
* Associer les unités lexicales et grammaticales au sein des phrases
* Utiliser le temps des verbes, les connecteurs et/ou marqueurs de relation afin de repérer la chronologie des événements
* Phrase interrogative avec génitif (Wessen ?) ; Genre des noms et des adjectifs (accusatif, datif, génitif) ; Prépositions avec génitif (wegen, trotz, statt, während, …) ; Présent, passé composé, imparfait, impératif, futur, infinitif ; Verbes faibles et forts ; Verbes modaux ; Verbes composés
3. Semantic competence - La compétence sémantique
001
* express thoughts on language, characters and plots in texts from daily life and from fiction from various times and cultures.
* recognise and use linguistic techniques such as repetition, contrast and simple metaphors and images.
002
* compare word meanings, particularly synonyms or partial synonyms, and homonyms and polyseme
* recognise the main ideas and details in a text suitable to the given age, take notes on the main ideas
003
* être attentif aux correspondances sémantiques et lexicales entre les parlers locaux, les patois, proches de la langue
004
* To identify different meanings of the same word in different contexts
* To set relations between different lexical and grammatical categories
* To identify the aim of the speaker in a utterance, considering the context
005
* Compare various syntactical structures to observe their semantic equivalents and potential changes in meaning
* Explore the possibilities of joining sentences in different ways (cause, consequence, purpose, contrast, condition...) in relation to text composition
006
* are able to explain the meaning of the given word/word phrase from the text
* are able to select appropriate and effective vocabulary corresponding to the meaning (when producing texts)
* they are aware that the meaning of the word affects the meaning of the text
007
* Élaborer et consulter des outils collectifs et/ou individuels de référence (liste de mots, règles…)
* réviser ses textes, s’il est renseigné sur les aspects perfectibles de son texte, en mobilisant ses connaissances lexicales, syntaxiques et orthographiques essentielles
4. Orthographic competence - La compétence orthographique
001 ---
002
* write simple types of communication correctly both in terms of content and form
* write i/y correctly in words after ambiguous consonants
* master basic examples of morpho-syntactic agreement
003
* posséder autant que possible les éléments et les règles fondamentales de l'orthographe
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To use orthographic and punctuation rules appropriately
* To disambiguate meanings resulting from the sound and the spelling of a word
* To use punctuation to represent types of sentences
005 Use of common spelling rules and the resolution of doubts about spelling by using the appropriate tools (dictionaries, notes …), whether it be on paper or digital.
006
* observe spelling, technical accuracy of syntax in phrases, clauses, sentences, texts and note deviations from standards
* use spelling and punctuation aids (in written and electronic form)
007 Orthographier correctement un capital mots de grande fréquence en relation avec les thèmes travaillés en classe (Schreibwortschatz)
5. Phonological competence - La compétence phonologique
001 describe similarities and differences between a selection of spoken varieties of the Norwegian language
002
* recognise a word’s phonetic and graphic forms, segment words into phonemes, distinguish between long and short vowels
* select proper intonation, stress, pauses and pace depending on the focus of his/her communicative intent
* distinguish between standard and non-standard pronunciation and use it properly depending on the situation
003 (*) La programmation didactique doit consacrer une place importante aux activités de formation et production de sons, à la recherche et à l'exploration de timbres de la voix, à l'emploi de la voix d'après différents modèles d'expression. C'est un ensemble d'activités à réaliser compte tenu de l'apprentissage de deux langues et donc:
* des traits phonologiques de chacune d'elles;
* de la priorité, attestée et reconnue, des traits mélodiques dans la formation bilingue (intonation, rythme, accent);
* des interférences linguistiques dérivant de différentes structures d'intonation, de la caractérisation verbale, de l'articulation, de la syllabation et de l'accentuation de chaque langue.
NB : tiré du paragraphe consacré à Education au son et à la musique
004
* To pronounce sounds correctly
* To understand the way different sounds can link into each other to form words
* To identify the smallest sound units which can make a difference to meaning
005 Show an interest in expressing oneself through speaking with appropriate pronunciation and expression
006
* practise and master pronunciation of formal language (words, sentences and texts)
* try to speak as formally as possible in conversation and during the intercourse with their teachers
* try to speak as formally as possible in conversation and during the intercourse with their teachers
007
* articuler clairement et correctement pour assurer une bonne intelligibilité
* Recourir à des éléments prosodiques, mimiques et gestuels
B. SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCE – LA COMPOSANTE SOCIOLINGUISTIQUE
001
* explain how a person might offend others through language use
* describe language and the use of language, parts of speech and their functions
002
* adhere to basic communication rules in a conversation
* select suitable verbal as well as non-verbal means of expression in everyday situations both at school and outside of school
* distinguish communicative sentence types in a text and form them using proper linguistic and phonetic means
003
* être attentif aux correspondances sémantiques et lexicales entre les parlers locaux, les patois, proches de la langue
* distinguer les différences d'accent présentes dans la classe et dans son entourage social immédiat
004
* To distinguish geographical, social and historical contexts which origin different varieties of the Portuguese language
* To identify features of standard language
* To speak fluently and accurately in most situations, using verbal and non-verbal resources, with a complexity appropriate to the situations of communication
005
* Positive awareness of the linguistic variety in the school and wider social context.
* Know the locations of Spain’s languages and show a positive evaluation of this linguistic richness, avoiding prejudices about the languages and their speakers
* Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences
006
* they monitor their own and other communication in Slovene in different contexts and evaluate appropriatness in the given contexts
* they detect and identify their own and other stylistic mistakes, reduce them and support their corrections with arguments
* they use different speech techniques (the same oral activity in different ways), appreciate/evaluate politeness
007
* Respecter les règles de la politesse (ne pas interrompre les autres, écouter)
* Valoriser les propos d’autrui (signes de tête, gestes supportants)
C. PRAGMATIC COMPETENCES - LA COMPOSANTE PRAGMATIQUE
1. Discursive competence - La compétence discursive
001
* lay out a text with a heading, an introduction and a conclusion.
002
* create an outline of a narration and prepare a short oral or written expression based on it while preserving chronological sequence
* use appropriate connectives and vary them as required by the utterance
003
* rendre les conversations et les discours intéressants
* avoir un discours cohérent et dialoguer avec efficacité
004
* To combine utterances in coherent and cohesive texts
* To use a range of words which are relevant for the subject
* To explain the meaning of figurative expressions
005 Ability to express oneself clearly in an organised, coherent way, according to the genre and communicative situation. Students should be able to select the relevant contents and express them using the lexis and formulas appropriate to these situations, such as tone of voice, body language and gestures
006 identify parts of text (paragraphs)
007
* Suivre le développement du texte, sa structure, repérer des étapes, des passages importants dans un texte
* Résumer des passages, créer soi-même une structure en créant de nouveaux titres intermédiaires
* Identifier les traces de la structure du texte (p.ex. en soulignant des titres et des sous-titres, les mots de liaison…)
2. Functional competence - La compétence fonctionnelle
001 write stories, poems, letters and factual prose
002
* express oneself according to the communication situation: greetings, addressing, apologies, requests, messages, announcements, narration, polite presentation, descriptions,
* congratulations, invitation,
003
* produire des textes axés sur la description, le récit, l'argumentation et la spontanéité
* (*) On écrit en fonction des besoins: les élèves prennent des notes, rédigent des rapports, font des interviews et des sondages, organisent des recherches (selon les contenus des différentes matières).
004
* To ask for information and complementary explanation
* To ask questions, to make requests, to give an opinion, to justify a point of view
005 Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences
006
* identify visual and audio non-verbal elements that accompany speech, present their role in speaking activity /conversation and their impact on listeners/interlocutors
* compare non-verbal elements that accompany speech in conversations and talks
* observe non-verbal written messages (pictograms, graphs, maps, photographs), and present their intelligibility and effectiveness
007 ---
3. Interactive competence - La compétence interactionnelle
001
* assess and compare his or her own texts and those of others
002
* correctly conduct a dialogue, a telephone conversation, leave a message on an answering machine (on voicemail)
* select suitable verbal as well as non-verbal means of expression in everyday situations both at school and outside of school
003
* communiquer par écrit avec des interlocuteurs différents d'une manière toujours plus articulée et complète, dans le contenu et dans la forme
* considérer dans son ensemble la pensée de ses interlocuteurs et y découvrir tout ce qu'elle recèle d'ordinaire, d'essentiel, d'original
004
* To interact spontaneously and confidently in informal communicative situations
* To contribute effectively to class or group work in gradually formal situations
005
* Ability to establish satisfactory social relationships with others, as well as ability to initiate, sustain and end conversations with peers
* Valuing and respecting the rules of oral interaction: turn-taking, different roles in the exchange, appropriate tone of voice, body language and gestures
* Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences. Adopt a critical attitude toward any message which implies any kind of discrimination
006 adapt the same texts to different listeners and explain their adaptations
007 ----
CODE Any comments - Commentaires éventuels
001 There seems to be considerable overlap between the C sub-categories . We have therefore chose not to break down the assessment of Pragmatic competences (pour le tableau 2.2.2.)
003 L’emploi de la couleur rouge intervient lorsqu’un même descripteur est répété sous diverses « rubriques » et elle indique la partie, pour chaque rubrique, ce qui la concerne directement.
La couleur bordeaux est utilisée pour signaler dans les descripteurs (ou similaires) en langues une référence aux autres matières.
(*) Ce signe n’indique pas de descripteurs véritables, mais des citations repérées dans les programmes. Il a été décidé de les signaler car elles pourraient facilement être transformées en descripteurs.
004 Communicative competence does not seem to be the most accurate term (there is communication in all the other competences). The division into Linguistic Competence, Sociolinguistic Competence and Pragmatics Competence could be reconsidered – the two last ones are part of the linguistic competence, not separate competences at the same level.
Also, within the Linguistic competence, there seems to be mixed plans: grammar competence is not at the same level of the others (lexical, semantic, orthographic, and phonological). Grammar is about the knowledge of the norms concerning these levels and others. We have norms for the lexis, the semantics, the orthography and the phonology. And what about syntax and morphology?
We recommend that this organization to be reviewed by a linguistic. We can recommend a Portuguese researcher with a very strong curriculum – Professor João Costa - jcosta@fcsh.unl.pt .
005 The following descriptors are adjusted to the curricula aims and goals for each triennium
006 Compétence fonctionnelle et interactionnelle : L'introduction du Plan d'études spécifie que toutes les activités langagières doivent s'inscrire dans un contexte concret, en relation avec le vécu des apprenants.
cmd
Reading Room
The Competency-Based Approach to Training
JHPIEGO Strategy Paper • September 1995
Prepared by Rick Sullivan, PhD
Director, Training Office, JHPIEGO Corporation
* What is CBT?
* Characteristics of CBT
* Advantages and Limitations of CBT
* Models and Simulations of CBT
* Evaluation and Assessment in CBT
* Implications for Using CBT
* JHPIEGO's Approach to CBT
* Transfer of Training
* Summary
* References
* Credits
* Printer-friendly version
(Adobe® Acrobat®)(39k)
Throughout the world, millions of students go to school every day. These students study subjects such as science, language and mathematics in courses usually scheduled to last the duration of the school year. Because progression through the various subjects in school is time-based, at any given time during the year the teacher is expected to be at a specific point in the textbook or course content. While not every student may progress at the same rate, the schedule typically requires everyone to move at the same rate as the teacher. Tests are administered periodically to ensure students understand the concepts and principles. Test scores often are compared to determine the grades of the students. Unfortunately, when a student does not do well on a test there often is little time for individual assistance as the teacher must move on in order to adhere to the established time schedule.
While traditional, time-based approaches to education have met with varying levels of success over the years, it is an ineffective system when the goal is to train individuals to perform specific, job-related skills. For example, an active, certified airline pilot is attending a 3-week training course to learn to fly a new type of aircraft. Will attending all sessions during the course ensure the pilot can fly the plane? Of course not! If the pilot is unable to attend 2 days of the course, does this mean the pilot cannot fly the plane? Probably not. After 4 days, the pilot does poorly on a written test. Should the pilot immediately fail the course or should the pilot continue with assistance and be given the opportunity to be tested again? If the pilot can pass all written tests does this indicate that the pilot can fly the plane? No! In addition to assessing knowledge, an evaluation of the pilot’s skills also is required.
Obviously, the time-based educational system used in schools and universities is not appropriate when conducting training. A more appropriate approach is competency-based training (CBT).
What is CBT?
In a traditional educational system, the unit of progression is time and it is teacher-centered. In a CBT system, the unit of progression is mastery of specific knowledge and skills and is learner- or participant-centered. Two key terms used in competency-based training are:
* Skill—A task or group of tasks performed to a specific level of competency or proficiency which often use motor functions and typically require the manipulation of instruments and equipment (e.g., IUD insertion or Norplant ® implants removal). Some skills, however, such as counseling, are knowledge- and attitude-based.
* Competency—A skill performed to a specific standard under specific conditions.
There appears to be substantial support for competency-based training. Norton (1987) believes that competency-based training should be used as opposed to the “medieval concept of time-based learning.” Foyster (1990) argues that using the traditional “school” model for training is inefficient. After in-depth examinations of three competency-based programs, Anthony Watson (1990) concluded that competency-based instruction has tremendous potential for training in industry. Moreover, in a 1990 study of basic skills education programs in business and industry, Paul Delker found that successful training programs were competency-based.
A competent clinician (e.g., physician, nurse, midwife, medical assistant) is one who is able to perform a clinical skill to a satisfactory standard. Competency-based training for reproductive health professionals then is training based upon the participant’s ability to demonstrate attainment or mastery of clinical skills performed under certain conditions to specific standards (the skills then become competencies). Norton (1987) describes five essential elements of a CBT system:
* Competencies to be achieved are carefully identified, verified and made public in advance.
* Criteria to be used in assessing achievement and the conditions under which achievement will be assessed are explicitly stated and made public in advance.
* The instructional program provides for the individual development and evaluation of each of the competencies specified.
* Assessment of competency takes the participant’s knowledge and attitudes into account but requires actual performance of the competency as the primary source of evidence.
* Participants progress through the instructional program at their own rate by demonstrating the attainment of the specified competencies.
Characteristics of CBT
How does one identify a competency-based training program? In addition to a set of competencies, what other characteristics are associated with CBT? According to Foyster (1990), Delker (1990) and Norton (1987) there are a number of characteristics of competency-based programs. Key characteristics are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of Competency-Based Training Programs
* Competencies are carefully selected.
* Supporting theory is integrated with skill practice. Essential knowledge is learned to support the performance of skills.
* Detailed training materials are keyed to the competencies to be achieved and are designed to support the acquisition of knowledge and skills.
* Methods of instruction involve mastery learning, the premise that all participants can master the required knowledge or skill, provided sufficient time and appropriate training methods are used.
* Participants’ knowledge and skills are assessed as they enter the program and those with satisfactory knowledge and skills may bypass training or competencies already attained.
* Learning should be self-paced.
* Flexible training approaches including large group methods, small group activities and individual study are essential components.
* A variety of support materials including print, audiovisual and simulations (models) keyed to the skills being mastered are used.
* Satisfactory completion of training is based on achievement of all specified competencies.
Advantages and Limitations of CBT
One of the primary advantages of CBT is that the focus is on the success of each participant. Watson (1990) states that the competency-based approach “appears especially useful in training situations where trainees have to attain a small number of specific and job-related competencies” (page 18). Benefits of CBT identified by Norton (1987) include:
* Participants will achieve competencies required in the performance of their jobs.
* Participants build confidence as they succeed in mastering specific competencies.
* Participants receive a transcript or list of the competencies they have achieved.
* Training time is used more efficiently and effectively as the trainer is a facilitator of learning as opposed to a provider of information.
* More training time is devoted to working with participants individually or in small groups as opposed to presenting lectures.
* More training time is devoted to evaluating each participant’s ability to perform essential job skills.
While there are a number of advantages of competency-based training, there also are some potential limitations. Prior to implementing CBT, it is important to consider these limitations:
* Unless initial training and followup assistance is provided for the trainers, there is a tendency to “teach as we were taught” and CBT trainers quickly slip back into the role of the traditional teacher.
* A CBT course is only as effective as the process used to identify the competencies. When little or no attention is given to identification of the essential job skills, then the resulting training course is likely to be ineffective.
* A course may be classified as competency-based, but unless specific CBT materials and training approaches (e.g., learning guides, checklists and coaching) are designed to be used as part of a CBT approach, it is unlikely that the resulting course will be truly competency-based.
Models and Simulations in CBT
Models and simulations are used extensively in competency-based training courses. Airplane pilots first learn to fly in a simulator. Supervisors first learn to provide feedback to employees using role plays during training. Individuals learning to administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) practice this procedure on a model of a human (mannequin).
Satur and Gupta (1994) developed a model which facilitates skill development in performing and evaluating coronary anastomoses with an angioscope. The results of their study indicate that models are proving invaluable as a training tool. George H. Buck in a 1991 historical review of the use of simulators in medical education concluded that “Given the developments in this technology within the last 50 years, it is possible that the use of simulators will increase in the future, should the need arise to teach new concepts and procedures at set times to large groups of individuals” (p. 24). Researchers in two different experimental studies involving training people to perform breast self-examinations (BSE) compared several methods and found that using models was the most effective training method (Campbell et. al., 1991 and Assaf et. al., 1985). In a multicenter evaluation of training of physicians in the use of 30-cm flexible sigmoidoscopy, Weissman et al (1987) found that they were easily trained by first practicing on plastic colon models.
Norton (1987) believes that participants in a competency-based training course should learn in an environment that duplicates or simulates the work place. Richards (1985) in writing about performance testing indicates that assessment of skills requires tests using simulations (e.g., models and role plays) or work samples (i.e., performing actual tasks under controlled conditions in either a laboratory or a job setting). Finally, Delker (1990) in a study of business and industry found that the best approach for training involved learner-centered instruction using print, instructional technology and simulations.
Evaluation and Assessment in CBT
Evaluation in traditional courses typically involves administering knowledge-based tests. While knowledge-based assessments can certainly be used in CBT to measure mastery of information, the primary focus is on measuring mastery of skills. In keeping with this, Thomson (1991) reports that the decision to recognize a performance as satisfactory and to determine competence should be the basis for success of a competency-based program. Moreover, Foyster (1990) argues that assessment in competency-based programs must be criterion-referenced with the criterion being the competencies upon which the program is based. Finally, Richards (1985) indicates that simulation and work sample performance tests should include a checklist or some type of rating scale.
Implications for Using CBT
In a 1990 study of three operating competency-based programs, Anthony Watson identified a number of implications for organizations considering implementing a CBT system:
* Organizations must be committed to providing adequate resources and training materials.
* Audiovisual materials need to be directly related to the written materials.
* Training activities need to match the objectives.
* Continuous participant interaction and feedback must take place.
* Trainers must be trained to conduct competency-based training courses.
* Individuals attending training must be prepared for CBT as this approach is likely to be very different from their past educational and training experiences.
JHPIEGO’s Approach to CBT
JHPIEGO Corporation has adopted a competency-based approach to conducting clinical training in selected reproductive health practices. Based on the principles summarized in this paper, JHPIEGO’s approach to CBT involves key activities which occur during the design, delivery and evaluation of training courses. These activities are summarized here and explained in detail in JHPIEGO’s Clinical Training Skills for Reproductive Health Professionals and Advanced Training Skills for Reproductive Health Professionals reference manuals.
The key activities around which JHPIEGO’s competency-based training is built include design, delivery and evaluation activities. The components of each are summarized in Table 2 and Table 3.
Table 2. Design Activities
* Identification of the specific clinical skills (e.g., IUD, Norplant implants, counseling, infection prevention or minilaparotomy) that will form the basis of a competency-based training course.
* Identification of the conditions (e.g., using models, role plays, clients) under which the skills must be demonstrated.
* Development of the criteria or standards to which the skills must be performed.
* Development of the competency-based learning guides and checklists which list each of the steps and sequence (if necessary) required to perform each skill or activity.
* Development of reference manuals which contain the essential, need-to-know information related to the skills to be developed.
* Development of models (e.g., Zoe pelvic model, Norplant implants training arm) to be used during training.
* Development of training objectives which outline what the participant must do in order to master the clinical skills.
* Development of course outlines which match a variety of training methods and supporting media to course objectives.
* Development of course syllabi and schedules which contain information about the course and which can be sent to
Table 3. Delivery and Evaluation Activities
* Administration of a precourse questionnaire to assess the participants’ knowledge and attitudes about course content.
* Administration of precourse skill assessments using models to ensure participants possess the entry level skills (e.g., able to perform a pelvic exam if learning to insert IUDs) to complete the course successfully and role plays to determine the level of their communication (counseling) skills.
* Delivery of the course by a trainer/facilitator using an interactive and participatory approach.
* Transfer of skills from the trainer to the participants through clinical and counseling skill demonstrations using slide sets, videotapes, models, role plays and finally, clients.
* Development of the participants’ skills using a humanistic approach, which means participants acquire the skill and then practice until competent using anatomic models and role plays.
* Practice of the skills following the steps in the learning guide until the participant becomes competent at performing the skill. During this time the trainer functions as a coach providing continuous feedback and reinforcement to participants. Only when participants are assessed and determined to be competent on a model do they work with clients.
* Presentation of supporting information and theory through interactive and participatory classroom sessions using a variety of methods and audiovisuals.
* Administration of a midcourse questionnaire to determine if the participants have mastered the new knowledge associated with the clinical skills.
* Guided practice in providing all components of the clinical service.
* Evaluation of each participant’s performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, practice and clinical skills) with clients. The evaluation by the trainer is performed using competency-based checklists. The participant is either qualified or not qualified as a result of the knowledge, attitude and skills assessments.
* Presentation of a statement of qualification which identifies the specific clinical service the individual is qualified to provide.
Transfer of Training
JHPIEGO uses a four-step process to transfer specific clinical skills and knowledge from experts to service providers. These steps are part of the process of developing a family planning training system within a country. The four steps include:
* Standardizing provision of clinical services and modifying and adapting JHPIEGO training materials as necessary
* Training service providers to provide these services competently, according to the approved standards
* Identifying and preparing proficient service providers to function as clinical skill trainers so they are able to train other service providers
* Identifying and preparing clinical skill trainers to function as advanced and eventually master trainers so that they are able to train other clinical skill trainers, evaluate training and develop or revise course materials
The first step is to standardize the clinical skill(s) to be used in the delivery of family planning services. For example, in a country there may be a need to train clinicians to perform IUD insertions and removals. The first activity conducted is to identify and observe a group of clinicians who are performing these procedures. The steps the clinicians perform are observed and compared to the standard approach outlined in JHPIEGO’s competency-based IUD learning guides and checklists. This observation process gives JHPIEGO trainers an idea of the skill levels of those who will be trained to be service providers. As necessary, JHPIEGO’s learning guides and checklists are modified to meet the specific service delivery standards or norms within the host country. The standardized procedure then forms the basis for the service provider training courses conducted within the country.
The second step is to train a specific group of service providers to perform the standardized clinical skills. The clinical skills course is based on a training package (see Figure 1) consisting of a reference manual, supporting audiovisuals, anatomic models, and trainer and participant handbooks (which contain the learning guides and checklists based on the standardized procedure). Following the clinical skills course, these competent service providers provide clinical services to clients. After providing services for a period of time, a group of the most proficient service providers who have demonstrated an interest and willingness to become clinical trainers undergo training skills training.
Figure 1
The third step in the transfer process is to prepare a group of proficient service providers to be clinical skill trainers. These service providers attend a clinical training skills course which also is based on a training package. During this course, participants will have their clinical knowledge updated and skills assessed and standardized to ensure they are proficient at performing the clinical skill. Participants will then learn how to demonstrate clinical skills, transfer knowledge and skills during training, function as clinical coaches, and use competency-based learning guides and checklists to assess participant performance. Following the clinical training skills course these clinical skill trainers conduct service provider training courses. During their first service provider course they either co-train with an advanced (or master) clinical trainer or are observed by a training skills trainer.
The final step in the process of transferring skills is to prepare a small group of proficient clinical skill trainers to become advanced trainers. These clinical skill trainers attend an advanced training skills course which is also based on a training package. During this course, participants learn how to conduct needs assessments, design training courses, facilitate the group dynamics occurring during a course, and evaluate training. Following the advanced training skills course these advanced trainers conduct clinical training skills courses. During their first several training courses they cotrain with a master trainer. After successfully delivering several training skills courses these individuals can be qualified to function as a master trainer.
Summary
Based on the concepts and principles presented in this paper, the key features of JHPIEGO’s approach to training include:
* Development of competencies (knowledge, attitude and practice) is based on national standards.
* Quality of performance is built into the training process.
* Emphasis of the training is on development of qualified providers, not on the number of clinicians undergoing training.
* Training builds competency and confidence because participants know what level of performance is expected, how knowledge and skills will be evaluated, that progression through training is self-paced, and that there are opportunities for practice until mastery is achieved.
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Competency-based education is a systematic but flexible learning process which focuses on defining in measurable terms what students are to learn. Expected behaviors, conditions for their performance, and acceptable standards are specified in advance. Mastery of competencies is determined by evaluation of knowledge and skills utilizing varied assessment methods. Credit for prior learning may be demonstrated through competency validation measures such as testing, demonstration and evaluation of skills, portfolio documentation and evaluation, and employer verification. Competency-based learning objectives may be packaged in varied formats for traditional and alternative delivery approaches.
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ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
COMPOSANTES DE LA COMPETENCE COMMUNICATIVE
End of level ISCED 1 – End of primary - Fin du niveau CITE 1 - Fin du primaire
A. LINGUISTIC COMPETENCES - LA COMPOSANTE LINGUISTIQUE
CODE
1. Lexical competence - La compétence lexicale
001
* master a vocabulary that is adequate to express knowledge, experience, perceptions, emotions and personal opinions.
* talk abut how the choice of words, the use of ones voice and intonation create different meaning in a text (competence aim after Year 2)
002
* understand written and oral instructions of reasonable difficulty
* distinguish standard words and their non-standard forms
003
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To identify processes of lexical enrichment of the Portuguese language
* To identify word formation irregular processes and lexical innovation
* To deduce the meaning of words from their context
005
* Express oneself orally through texts which present knowledge, facts and opinions coherently
* Narrate, explain, describe, summarise, and present opinions and information in written texts related to everyday and school situations in an ordered and satisfactory way
NB: Notice that there is not explicit lexicon in our curriculum as it is related with oral and written expression in meaningful contexts
006
* identify vocabulary - words and their word-forms
* form words from given common syntactic roots/stems (word formation)
* are able to use lexical aids (dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses) in written and electronic form
007
* utiliser un vocabulaire précis, varié et adapté
* mobiliser ses connaissances lexicales et grammaticales
2. Grammatical competence - La compétence grammaticale
001
* describe language and the use of language, parts of speech and their functions.
* vary syntax
002
* identify the root, suffix, prefix and ending in a word
* distinguish parts of speech in their basic form
* master basic examples of morpho-syntactic agreement
003
* remarquer au sein des contextes les concordances fondamentales entre les mots et organiser graduellement ces remarques dans des schémas morphologiques (flexions, modifications)
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To identify the immediate constituents of sentences
* To classify relations between immediate constituents of sentences and their syntactic functions
* To differentiate the main syntactic processes of articulation between complex sentences
005
* Understand and use basic grammatical and linguistic terminology in activities of text production and comprehension. Conceptualization of grammatical elements that allow the use of dictionaries
* Narrate, explain, describe, summarise, and present opinions and information in written texts taking care with grammar and spelling rules and formal aspects, whether on paper or in digital format.
* Recognise narrative, instructive, descriptive and explanatory structures for comprehension and composition
NB: Grammatical competence in our curriculum includes contents related to reflection on language and the acquisition of some concepts and of a grammar terminology. The presence of grammar is justified by the fact that the acquisition of language and communication skills requires reflection on different aspects of language and grammar content should be taken into account in order to improve skills in the use of the language.
006
* they are able to formulate sentences from words, groups of sentences from sentences by observing semantic and formative relations
* they rid of “critical points” in their practical mastery of grammar
* identify individual parts of sentence
007
* Associer les unités lexicales et grammaticales au sein des phrases
* Utiliser le temps des verbes, les connecteurs et/ou marqueurs de relation afin de repérer la chronologie des événements
* Phrase interrogative avec génitif (Wessen ?) ; Genre des noms et des adjectifs (accusatif, datif, génitif) ; Prépositions avec génitif (wegen, trotz, statt, während, …) ; Présent, passé composé, imparfait, impératif, futur, infinitif ; Verbes faibles et forts ; Verbes modaux ; Verbes composés
3. Semantic competence - La compétence sémantique
001
* express thoughts on language, characters and plots in texts from daily life and from fiction from various times and cultures.
* recognise and use linguistic techniques such as repetition, contrast and simple metaphors and images.
002
* compare word meanings, particularly synonyms or partial synonyms, and homonyms and polyseme
* recognise the main ideas and details in a text suitable to the given age, take notes on the main ideas
003
* être attentif aux correspondances sémantiques et lexicales entre les parlers locaux, les patois, proches de la langue
004
* To identify different meanings of the same word in different contexts
* To set relations between different lexical and grammatical categories
* To identify the aim of the speaker in a utterance, considering the context
005
* Compare various syntactical structures to observe their semantic equivalents and potential changes in meaning
* Explore the possibilities of joining sentences in different ways (cause, consequence, purpose, contrast, condition...) in relation to text composition
006
* are able to explain the meaning of the given word/word phrase from the text
* are able to select appropriate and effective vocabulary corresponding to the meaning (when producing texts)
* they are aware that the meaning of the word affects the meaning of the text
007
* Élaborer et consulter des outils collectifs et/ou individuels de référence (liste de mots, règles…)
* réviser ses textes, s’il est renseigné sur les aspects perfectibles de son texte, en mobilisant ses connaissances lexicales, syntaxiques et orthographiques essentielles
4. Orthographic competence - La compétence orthographique
001 ---
002
* write simple types of communication correctly both in terms of content and form
* write i/y correctly in words after ambiguous consonants
* master basic examples of morpho-syntactic agreement
003
* posséder autant que possible les éléments et les règles fondamentales de l'orthographe
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To use orthographic and punctuation rules appropriately
* To disambiguate meanings resulting from the sound and the spelling of a word
* To use punctuation to represent types of sentences
005 Use of common spelling rules and the resolution of doubts about spelling by using the appropriate tools (dictionaries, notes …), whether it be on paper or digital.
006
* observe spelling, technical accuracy of syntax in phrases, clauses, sentences, texts and note deviations from standards
* use spelling and punctuation aids (in written and electronic form)
007 Orthographier correctement un capital mots de grande fréquence en relation avec les thèmes travaillés en classe (Schreibwortschatz)
5. Phonological competence - La compétence phonologique
001 describe similarities and differences between a selection of spoken varieties of the Norwegian language
002
* recognise a word’s phonetic and graphic forms, segment words into phonemes, distinguish between long and short vowels
* select proper intonation, stress, pauses and pace depending on the focus of his/her communicative intent
* distinguish between standard and non-standard pronunciation and use it properly depending on the situation
003 (*) La programmation didactique doit consacrer une place importante aux activités de formation et production de sons, à la recherche et à l'exploration de timbres de la voix, à l'emploi de la voix d'après différents modèles d'expression. C'est un ensemble d'activités à réaliser compte tenu de l'apprentissage de deux langues et donc:
* des traits phonologiques de chacune d'elles;
* de la priorité, attestée et reconnue, des traits mélodiques dans la formation bilingue (intonation, rythme, accent);
* des interférences linguistiques dérivant de différentes structures d'intonation, de la caractérisation verbale, de l'articulation, de la syllabation et de l'accentuation de chaque langue.
NB : tiré du paragraphe consacré à Education au son et à la musique
004
* To pronounce sounds correctly
* To understand the way different sounds can link into each other to form words
* To identify the smallest sound units which can make a difference to meaning
005 Show an interest in expressing oneself through speaking with appropriate pronunciation and expression
006
* practise and master pronunciation of formal language (words, sentences and texts)
* try to speak as formally as possible in conversation and during the intercourse with their teachers
* try to speak as formally as possible in conversation and during the intercourse with their teachers
007
* articuler clairement et correctement pour assurer une bonne intelligibilité
* Recourir à des éléments prosodiques, mimiques et gestuels
B. SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCE – LA COMPOSANTE SOCIOLINGUISTIQUE
001
* explain how a person might offend others through language use
* describe language and the use of language, parts of speech and their functions
002
* adhere to basic communication rules in a conversation
* select suitable verbal as well as non-verbal means of expression in everyday situations both at school and outside of school
* distinguish communicative sentence types in a text and form them using proper linguistic and phonetic means
003
* être attentif aux correspondances sémantiques et lexicales entre les parlers locaux, les patois, proches de la langue
* distinguer les différences d'accent présentes dans la classe et dans son entourage social immédiat
004
* To distinguish geographical, social and historical contexts which origin different varieties of the Portuguese language
* To identify features of standard language
* To speak fluently and accurately in most situations, using verbal and non-verbal resources, with a complexity appropriate to the situations of communication
005
* Positive awareness of the linguistic variety in the school and wider social context.
* Know the locations of Spain’s languages and show a positive evaluation of this linguistic richness, avoiding prejudices about the languages and their speakers
* Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences
006
* they monitor their own and other communication in Slovene in different contexts and evaluate appropriatness in the given contexts
* they detect and identify their own and other stylistic mistakes, reduce them and support their corrections with arguments
* they use different speech techniques (the same oral activity in different ways), appreciate/evaluate politeness
007
* Respecter les règles de la politesse (ne pas interrompre les autres, écouter)
* Valoriser les propos d’autrui (signes de tête, gestes supportants)
C. PRAGMATIC COMPETENCES - LA COMPOSANTE PRAGMATIQUE
1. Discursive competence - La compétence discursive
001
* lay out a text with a heading, an introduction and a conclusion.
002
* create an outline of a narration and prepare a short oral or written expression based on it while preserving chronological sequence
* use appropriate connectives and vary them as required by the utterance
003
* rendre les conversations et les discours intéressants
* avoir un discours cohérent et dialoguer avec efficacité
004
* To combine utterances in coherent and cohesive texts
* To use a range of words which are relevant for the subject
* To explain the meaning of figurative expressions
005 Ability to express oneself clearly in an organised, coherent way, according to the genre and communicative situation. Students should be able to select the relevant contents and express them using the lexis and formulas appropriate to these situations, such as tone of voice, body language and gestures
006 identify parts of text (paragraphs)
007
* Suivre le développement du texte, sa structure, repérer des étapes, des passages importants dans un texte
* Résumer des passages, créer soi-même une structure en créant de nouveaux titres intermédiaires
* Identifier les traces de la structure du texte (p.ex. en soulignant des titres et des sous-titres, les mots de liaison…)
2. Functional competence - La compétence fonctionnelle
001 write stories, poems, letters and factual prose
002
* express oneself according to the communication situation: greetings, addressing, apologies, requests, messages, announcements, narration, polite presentation, descriptions,
* congratulations, invitation,
003
* produire des textes axés sur la description, le récit, l'argumentation et la spontanéité
* (*) On écrit en fonction des besoins: les élèves prennent des notes, rédigent des rapports, font des interviews et des sondages, organisent des recherches (selon les contenus des différentes matières).
004
* To ask for information and complementary explanation
* To ask questions, to make requests, to give an opinion, to justify a point of view
005 Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences
006
* identify visual and audio non-verbal elements that accompany speech, present their role in speaking activity /conversation and their impact on listeners/interlocutors
* compare non-verbal elements that accompany speech in conversations and talks
* observe non-verbal written messages (pictograms, graphs, maps, photographs), and present their intelligibility and effectiveness
007 ---
3. Interactive competence - La compétence interactionnelle
001
* assess and compare his or her own texts and those of others
002
* correctly conduct a dialogue, a telephone conversation, leave a message on an answering machine (on voicemail)
* select suitable verbal as well as non-verbal means of expression in everyday situations both at school and outside of school
003
* communiquer par écrit avec des interlocuteurs différents d'une manière toujours plus articulée et complète, dans le contenu et dans la forme
* considérer dans son ensemble la pensée de ses interlocuteurs et y découvrir tout ce qu'elle recèle d'ordinaire, d'essentiel, d'original
004
* To interact spontaneously and confidently in informal communicative situations
* To contribute effectively to class or group work in gradually formal situations
005
* Ability to establish satisfactory social relationships with others, as well as ability to initiate, sustain and end conversations with peers
* Valuing and respecting the rules of oral interaction: turn-taking, different roles in the exchange, appropriate tone of voice, body language and gestures
* Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences. Adopt a critical attitude toward any message which implies any kind of discrimination
006 adapt the same texts to different listeners and explain their adaptations
007 ----
CODE Any comments - Commentaires éventuels
001 There seems to be considerable overlap between the C sub-categories . We have therefore chose not to break down the assessment of Pragmatic competences (pour le tableau 2.2.2.)
003 L’emploi de la couleur rouge intervient lorsqu’un même descripteur est répété sous diverses « rubriques » et elle indique la partie, pour chaque rubrique, ce qui la concerne directement.
La couleur bordeaux est utilisée pour signaler dans les descripteurs (ou similaires) en langues une référence aux autres matières.
(*) Ce signe n’indique pas de descripteurs véritables, mais des citations repérées dans les programmes. Il a été décidé de les signaler car elles pourraient facilement être transformées en descripteurs.
004 Communicative competence does not seem to be the most accurate term (there is communication in all the other competences). The division into Linguistic Competence, Sociolinguistic Competence and Pragmatics Competence could be reconsidered – the two last ones are part of the linguistic competence, not separate competences at the same level.
Also, within the Linguistic competence, there seems to be mixed plans: grammar competence is not at the same level of the others (lexical, semantic, orthographic, and phonological). Grammar is about the knowledge of the norms concerning these levels and others. We have norms for the lexis, the semantics, the orthography and the phonology. And what about syntax and morphology?
We recommend that this organization to be reviewed by a linguistic. We can recommend a Portuguese researcher with a very strong curriculum – Professor João Costa - jcosta@fcsh.unl.pt .
005 The following descriptors are adjusted to the curricula aims and goals for each triennium
006 Compétence fonctionnelle et interactionnelle : L'introduction du Plan d'études spécifie que toutes les activités langagières doivent s'inscrire dans un contexte concret, en relation avec le vécu des apprenants.
The Competency-Based Approach to Training
JHPIEGO Strategy Paper • September 1995
Prepared by Rick Sullivan, PhD
Director, Training Office, JHPIEGO Corporation
* What is CBT?
* Characteristics of CBT
* Advantages and Limitations of CBT
* Models and Simulations of CBT
* Evaluation and Assessment in CBT
* Implications for Using CBT
* JHPIEGO's Approach to CBT
* Transfer of Training
* Summary
* References
* Credits
* Printer-friendly version
(Adobe® Acrobat®)(39k)
Throughout the world, millions of students go to school every day. These students study subjects such as science, language and mathematics in courses usually scheduled to last the duration of the school year. Because progression through the various subjects in school is time-based, at any given time during the year the teacher is expected to be at a specific point in the textbook or course content. While not every student may progress at the same rate, the schedule typically requires everyone to move at the same rate as the teacher. Tests are administered periodically to ensure students understand the concepts and principles. Test scores often are compared to determine the grades of the students. Unfortunately, when a student does not do well on a test there often is little time for individual assistance as the teacher must move on in order to adhere to the established time schedule.
While traditional, time-based approaches to education have met with varying levels of success over the years, it is an ineffective system when the goal is to train individuals to perform specific, job-related skills. For example, an active, certified airline pilot is attending a 3-week training course to learn to fly a new type of aircraft. Will attending all sessions during the course ensure the pilot can fly the plane? Of course not! If the pilot is unable to attend 2 days of the course, does this mean the pilot cannot fly the plane? Probably not. After 4 days, the pilot does poorly on a written test. Should the pilot immediately fail the course or should the pilot continue with assistance and be given the opportunity to be tested again? If the pilot can pass all written tests does this indicate that the pilot can fly the plane? No! In addition to assessing knowledge, an evaluation of the pilot’s skills also is required.
Obviously, the time-based educational system used in schools and universities is not appropriate when conducting training. A more appropriate approach is competency-based training (CBT).
What is CBT?
In a traditional educational system, the unit of progression is time and it is teacher-centered. In a CBT system, the unit of progression is mastery of specific knowledge and skills and is learner- or participant-centered. Two key terms used in competency-based training are:
* Skill—A task or group of tasks performed to a specific level of competency or proficiency which often use motor functions and typically require the manipulation of instruments and equipment (e.g., IUD insertion or Norplant ® implants removal). Some skills, however, such as counseling, are knowledge- and attitude-based.
* Competency—A skill performed to a specific standard under specific conditions.
There appears to be substantial support for competency-based training. Norton (1987) believes that competency-based training should be used as opposed to the “medieval concept of time-based learning.” Foyster (1990) argues that using the traditional “school” model for training is inefficient. After in-depth examinations of three competency-based programs, Anthony Watson (1990) concluded that competency-based instruction has tremendous potential for training in industry. Moreover, in a 1990 study of basic skills education programs in business and industry, Paul Delker found that successful training programs were competency-based.
A competent clinician (e.g., physician, nurse, midwife, medical assistant) is one who is able to perform a clinical skill to a satisfactory standard. Competency-based training for reproductive health professionals then is training based upon the participant’s ability to demonstrate attainment or mastery of clinical skills performed under certain conditions to specific standards (the skills then become competencies). Norton (1987) describes five essential elements of a CBT system:
* Competencies to be achieved are carefully identified, verified and made public in advance.
* Criteria to be used in assessing achievement and the conditions under which achievement will be assessed are explicitly stated and made public in advance.
* The instructional program provides for the individual development and evaluation of each of the competencies specified.
* Assessment of competency takes the participant’s knowledge and attitudes into account but requires actual performance of the competency as the primary source of evidence.
* Participants progress through the instructional program at their own rate by demonstrating the attainment of the specified competencies.
Characteristics of CBT
How does one identify a competency-based training program? In addition to a set of competencies, what other characteristics are associated with CBT? According to Foyster (1990), Delker (1990) and Norton (1987) there are a number of characteristics of competency-based programs. Key characteristics are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of Competency-Based Training Programs
* Competencies are carefully selected.
* Supporting theory is integrated with skill practice. Essential knowledge is learned to support the performance of skills.
* Detailed training materials are keyed to the competencies to be achieved and are designed to support the acquisition of knowledge and skills.
* Methods of instruction involve mastery learning, the premise that all participants can master the required knowledge or skill, provided sufficient time and appropriate training methods are used.
* Participants’ knowledge and skills are assessed as they enter the program and those with satisfactory knowledge and skills may bypass training or competencies already attained.
* Learning should be self-paced.
* Flexible training approaches including large group methods, small group activities and individual study are essential components.
* A variety of support materials including print, audiovisual and simulations (models) keyed to the skills being mastered are used.
* Satisfactory completion of training is based on achievement of all specified competencies.
Advantages and Limitations of CBT
One of the primary advantages of CBT is that the focus is on the success of each participant. Watson (1990) states that the competency-based approach “appears especially useful in training situations where trainees have to attain a small number of specific and job-related competencies” (page 18). Benefits of CBT identified by Norton (1987) include:
* Participants will achieve competencies required in the performance of their jobs.
* Participants build confidence as they succeed in mastering specific competencies.
* Participants receive a transcript or list of the competencies they have achieved.
* Training time is used more efficiently and effectively as the trainer is a facilitator of learning as opposed to a provider of information.
* More training time is devoted to working with participants individually or in small groups as opposed to presenting lectures.
* More training time is devoted to evaluating each participant’s ability to perform essential job skills.
While there are a number of advantages of competency-based training, there also are some potential limitations. Prior to implementing CBT, it is important to consider these limitations:
* Unless initial training and followup assistance is provided for the trainers, there is a tendency to “teach as we were taught” and CBT trainers quickly slip back into the role of the traditional teacher.
* A CBT course is only as effective as the process used to identify the competencies. When little or no attention is given to identification of the essential job skills, then the resulting training course is likely to be ineffective.
* A course may be classified as competency-based, but unless specific CBT materials and training approaches (e.g., learning guides, checklists and coaching) are designed to be used as part of a CBT approach, it is unlikely that the resulting course will be truly competency-based.
Models and Simulations in CBT
Models and simulations are used extensively in competency-based training courses. Airplane pilots first learn to fly in a simulator. Supervisors first learn to provide feedback to employees using role plays during training. Individuals learning to administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) practice this procedure on a model of a human (mannequin).
Satur and Gupta (1994) developed a model which facilitates skill development in performing and evaluating coronary anastomoses with an angioscope. The results of their study indicate that models are proving invaluable as a training tool. George H. Buck in a 1991 historical review of the use of simulators in medical education concluded that “Given the developments in this technology within the last 50 years, it is possible that the use of simulators will increase in the future, should the need arise to teach new concepts and procedures at set times to large groups of individuals” (p. 24). Researchers in two different experimental studies involving training people to perform breast self-examinations (BSE) compared several methods and found that using models was the most effective training method (Campbell et. al., 1991 and Assaf et. al., 1985). In a multicenter evaluation of training of physicians in the use of 30-cm flexible sigmoidoscopy, Weissman et al (1987) found that they were easily trained by first practicing on plastic colon models.
Norton (1987) believes that participants in a competency-based training course should learn in an environment that duplicates or simulates the work place. Richards (1985) in writing about performance testing indicates that assessment of skills requires tests using simulations (e.g., models and role plays) or work samples (i.e., performing actual tasks under controlled conditions in either a laboratory or a job setting). Finally, Delker (1990) in a study of business and industry found that the best approach for training involved learner-centered instruction using print, instructional technology and simulations.
Evaluation and Assessment in CBT
Evaluation in traditional courses typically involves administering knowledge-based tests. While knowledge-based assessments can certainly be used in CBT to measure mastery of information, the primary focus is on measuring mastery of skills. In keeping with this, Thomson (1991) reports that the decision to recognize a performance as satisfactory and to determine competence should be the basis for success of a competency-based program. Moreover, Foyster (1990) argues that assessment in competency-based programs must be criterion-referenced with the criterion being the competencies upon which the program is based. Finally, Richards (1985) indicates that simulation and work sample performance tests should include a checklist or some type of rating scale.
Implications for Using CBT
In a 1990 study of three operating competency-based programs, Anthony Watson identified a number of implications for organizations considering implementing a CBT system:
* Organizations must be committed to providing adequate resources and training materials.
* Audiovisual materials need to be directly related to the written materials.
* Training activities need to match the objectives.
* Continuous participant interaction and feedback must take place.
* Trainers must be trained to conduct competency-based training courses.
* Individuals attending training must be prepared for CBT as this approach is likely to be very different from their past educational and training experiences.
JHPIEGO’s Approach to CBT
JHPIEGO Corporation has adopted a competency-based approach to conducting clinical training in selected reproductive health practices. Based on the principles summarized in this paper, JHPIEGO’s approach to CBT involves key activities which occur during the design, delivery and evaluation of training courses. These activities are summarized here and explained in detail in JHPIEGO’s Clinical Training Skills for Reproductive Health Professionals and Advanced Training Skills for Reproductive Health Professionals reference manuals.
The key activities around which JHPIEGO’s competency-based training is built include design, delivery and evaluation activities. The components of each are summarized in Table 2 and Table 3.
Table 2. Design Activities
* Identification of the specific clinical skills (e.g., IUD, Norplant implants, counseling, infection prevention or minilaparotomy) that will form the basis of a competency-based training course.
* Identification of the conditions (e.g., using models, role plays, clients) under which the skills must be demonstrated.
* Development of the criteria or standards to which the skills must be performed.
* Development of the competency-based learning guides and checklists which list each of the steps and sequence (if necessary) required to perform each skill or activity.
* Development of reference manuals which contain the essential, need-to-know information related to the skills to be developed.
* Development of models (e.g., Zoe pelvic model, Norplant implants training arm) to be used during training.
* Development of training objectives which outline what the participant must do in order to master the clinical skills.
* Development of course outlines which match a variety of training methods and supporting media to course objectives.
* Development of course syllabi and schedules which contain information about the course and which can be sent to
Table 3. Delivery and Evaluation Activities
* Administration of a precourse questionnaire to assess the participants’ knowledge and attitudes about course content.
* Administration of precourse skill assessments using models to ensure participants possess the entry level skills (e.g., able to perform a pelvic exam if learning to insert IUDs) to complete the course successfully and role plays to determine the level of their communication (counseling) skills.
* Delivery of the course by a trainer/facilitator using an interactive and participatory approach.
* Transfer of skills from the trainer to the participants through clinical and counseling skill demonstrations using slide sets, videotapes, models, role plays and finally, clients.
* Development of the participants’ skills using a humanistic approach, which means participants acquire the skill and then practice until competent using anatomic models and role plays.
* Practice of the skills following the steps in the learning guide until the participant becomes competent at performing the skill. During this time the trainer functions as a coach providing continuous feedback and reinforcement to participants. Only when participants are assessed and determined to be competent on a model do they work with clients.
* Presentation of supporting information and theory through interactive and participatory classroom sessions using a variety of methods and audiovisuals.
* Administration of a midcourse questionnaire to determine if the participants have mastered the new knowledge associated with the clinical skills.
* Guided practice in providing all components of the clinical service.
* Evaluation of each participant’s performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, practice and clinical skills) with clients. The evaluation by the trainer is performed using competency-based checklists. The participant is either qualified or not qualified as a result of the knowledge, attitude and skills assessments.
* Presentation of a statement of qualification which identifies the specific clinical service the individual is qualified to provide.
Transfer of Training
JHPIEGO uses a four-step process to transfer specific clinical skills and knowledge from experts to service providers. These steps are part of the process of developing a family planning training system within a country. The four steps include:
* Standardizing provision of clinical services and modifying and adapting JHPIEGO training materials as necessary
* Training service providers to provide these services competently, according to the approved standards
* Identifying and preparing proficient service providers to function as clinical skill trainers so they are able to train other service providers
* Identifying and preparing clinical skill trainers to function as advanced and eventually master trainers so that they are able to train other clinical skill trainers, evaluate training and develop or revise course materials
The first step is to standardize the clinical skill(s) to be used in the delivery of family planning services. For example, in a country there may be a need to train clinicians to perform IUD insertions and removals. The first activity conducted is to identify and observe a group of clinicians who are performing these procedures. The steps the clinicians perform are observed and compared to the standard approach outlined in JHPIEGO’s competency-based IUD learning guides and checklists. This observation process gives JHPIEGO trainers an idea of the skill levels of those who will be trained to be service providers. As necessary, JHPIEGO’s learning guides and checklists are modified to meet the specific service delivery standards or norms within the host country. The standardized procedure then forms the basis for the service provider training courses conducted within the country.
The second step is to train a specific group of service providers to perform the standardized clinical skills. The clinical skills course is based on a training package (see Figure 1) consisting of a reference manual, supporting audiovisuals, anatomic models, and trainer and participant handbooks (which contain the learning guides and checklists based on the standardized procedure). Following the clinical skills course, these competent service providers provide clinical services to clients. After providing services for a period of time, a group of the most proficient service providers who have demonstrated an interest and willingness to become clinical trainers undergo training skills training.
Figure 1
The third step in the transfer process is to prepare a group of proficient service providers to be clinical skill trainers. These service providers attend a clinical training skills course which also is based on a training package. During this course, participants will have their clinical knowledge updated and skills assessed and standardized to ensure they are proficient at performing the clinical skill. Participants will then learn how to demonstrate clinical skills, transfer knowledge and skills during training, function as clinical coaches, and use competency-based learning guides and checklists to assess participant performance. Following the clinical training skills course these clinical skill trainers conduct service provider training courses. During their first service provider course they either co-train with an advanced (or master) clinical trainer or are observed by a training skills trainer.
The final step in the process of transferring skills is to prepare a small group of proficient clinical skill trainers to become advanced trainers. These clinical skill trainers attend an advanced training skills course which is also based on a training package. During this course, participants learn how to conduct needs assessments, design training courses, facilitate the group dynamics occurring during a course, and evaluate training. Following the advanced training skills course these advanced trainers conduct clinical training skills courses. During their first several training courses they cotrain with a master trainer. After successfully delivering several training skills courses these individuals can be qualified to function as a master trainer.
Summary
Based on the concepts and principles presented in this paper, the key features of JHPIEGO’s approach to training include:
* Development of competencies (knowledge, attitude and practice) is based on national standards.
* Quality of performance is built into the training process.
* Emphasis of the training is on development of qualified providers, not on the number of clinicians undergoing training.
* Training builds competency and confidence because participants know what level of performance is expected, how knowledge and skills will be evaluated, that progression through training is self-paced, and that there are opportunities for practice until mastery is achieved.
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Competency-based education is a systematic but flexible learning process which focuses on defining in measurable terms what students are to learn. Expected behaviors, conditions for their performance, and acceptable standards are specified in advance. Mastery of competencies is determined by evaluation of knowledge and skills utilizing varied assessment methods. Credit for prior learning may be demonstrated through competency validation measures such as testing, demonstration and evaluation of skills, portfolio documentation and evaluation, and employer verification. Competency-based learning objectives may be packaged in varied formats for traditional and alternative delivery approaches.
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ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
COMPOSANTES DE LA COMPETENCE COMMUNICATIVE
End of level ISCED 1 – End of primary - Fin du niveau CITE 1 - Fin du primaire
A. LINGUISTIC COMPETENCES - LA COMPOSANTE LINGUISTIQUE
CODE
1. Lexical competence - La compétence lexicale
001
* master a vocabulary that is adequate to express knowledge, experience, perceptions, emotions and personal opinions.
* talk abut how the choice of words, the use of ones voice and intonation create different meaning in a text (competence aim after Year 2)
002
* understand written and oral instructions of reasonable difficulty
* distinguish standard words and their non-standard forms
003
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To identify processes of lexical enrichment of the Portuguese language
* To identify word formation irregular processes and lexical innovation
* To deduce the meaning of words from their context
005
* Express oneself orally through texts which present knowledge, facts and opinions coherently
* Narrate, explain, describe, summarise, and present opinions and information in written texts related to everyday and school situations in an ordered and satisfactory way
NB: Notice that there is not explicit lexicon in our curriculum as it is related with oral and written expression in meaningful contexts
006
* identify vocabulary - words and their word-forms
* form words from given common syntactic roots/stems (word formation)
* are able to use lexical aids (dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses) in written and electronic form
007
* utiliser un vocabulaire précis, varié et adapté
* mobiliser ses connaissances lexicales et grammaticales
2. Grammatical competence - La compétence grammaticale
001
* describe language and the use of language, parts of speech and their functions.
* vary syntax
002
* identify the root, suffix, prefix and ending in a word
* distinguish parts of speech in their basic form
* master basic examples of morpho-syntactic agreement
003
* remarquer au sein des contextes les concordances fondamentales entre les mots et organiser graduellement ces remarques dans des schémas morphologiques (flexions, modifications)
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To identify the immediate constituents of sentences
* To classify relations between immediate constituents of sentences and their syntactic functions
* To differentiate the main syntactic processes of articulation between complex sentences
005
* Understand and use basic grammatical and linguistic terminology in activities of text production and comprehension. Conceptualization of grammatical elements that allow the use of dictionaries
* Narrate, explain, describe, summarise, and present opinions and information in written texts taking care with grammar and spelling rules and formal aspects, whether on paper or in digital format.
* Recognise narrative, instructive, descriptive and explanatory structures for comprehension and composition
NB: Grammatical competence in our curriculum includes contents related to reflection on language and the acquisition of some concepts and of a grammar terminology. The presence of grammar is justified by the fact that the acquisition of language and communication skills requires reflection on different aspects of language and grammar content should be taken into account in order to improve skills in the use of the language.
006
* they are able to formulate sentences from words, groups of sentences from sentences by observing semantic and formative relations
* they rid of “critical points” in their practical mastery of grammar
* identify individual parts of sentence
007
* Associer les unités lexicales et grammaticales au sein des phrases
* Utiliser le temps des verbes, les connecteurs et/ou marqueurs de relation afin de repérer la chronologie des événements
* Phrase interrogative avec génitif (Wessen ?) ; Genre des noms et des adjectifs (accusatif, datif, génitif) ; Prépositions avec génitif (wegen, trotz, statt, während, …) ; Présent, passé composé, imparfait, impératif, futur, infinitif ; Verbes faibles et forts ; Verbes modaux ; Verbes composés
3. Semantic competence - La compétence sémantique
001
* express thoughts on language, characters and plots in texts from daily life and from fiction from various times and cultures.
* recognise and use linguistic techniques such as repetition, contrast and simple metaphors and images.
002
* compare word meanings, particularly synonyms or partial synonyms, and homonyms and polyseme
* recognise the main ideas and details in a text suitable to the given age, take notes on the main ideas
003
* être attentif aux correspondances sémantiques et lexicales entre les parlers locaux, les patois, proches de la langue
004
* To identify different meanings of the same word in different contexts
* To set relations between different lexical and grammatical categories
* To identify the aim of the speaker in a utterance, considering the context
005
* Compare various syntactical structures to observe their semantic equivalents and potential changes in meaning
* Explore the possibilities of joining sentences in different ways (cause, consequence, purpose, contrast, condition...) in relation to text composition
006
* are able to explain the meaning of the given word/word phrase from the text
* are able to select appropriate and effective vocabulary corresponding to the meaning (when producing texts)
* they are aware that the meaning of the word affects the meaning of the text
007
* Élaborer et consulter des outils collectifs et/ou individuels de référence (liste de mots, règles…)
* réviser ses textes, s’il est renseigné sur les aspects perfectibles de son texte, en mobilisant ses connaissances lexicales, syntaxiques et orthographiques essentielles
4. Orthographic competence - La compétence orthographique
001 ---
002
* write simple types of communication correctly both in terms of content and form
* write i/y correctly in words after ambiguous consonants
* master basic examples of morpho-syntactic agreement
003
* posséder autant que possible les éléments et les règles fondamentales de l'orthographe
* écrire convenablement du point de vue de l'orthographe, en utilisant la ponctuation, avec un vocabulaire approprié et une syntaxe correcte
004
* To use orthographic and punctuation rules appropriately
* To disambiguate meanings resulting from the sound and the spelling of a word
* To use punctuation to represent types of sentences
005 Use of common spelling rules and the resolution of doubts about spelling by using the appropriate tools (dictionaries, notes …), whether it be on paper or digital.
006
* observe spelling, technical accuracy of syntax in phrases, clauses, sentences, texts and note deviations from standards
* use spelling and punctuation aids (in written and electronic form)
007 Orthographier correctement un capital mots de grande fréquence en relation avec les thèmes travaillés en classe (Schreibwortschatz)
5. Phonological competence - La compétence phonologique
001 describe similarities and differences between a selection of spoken varieties of the Norwegian language
002
* recognise a word’s phonetic and graphic forms, segment words into phonemes, distinguish between long and short vowels
* select proper intonation, stress, pauses and pace depending on the focus of his/her communicative intent
* distinguish between standard and non-standard pronunciation and use it properly depending on the situation
003 (*) La programmation didactique doit consacrer une place importante aux activités de formation et production de sons, à la recherche et à l'exploration de timbres de la voix, à l'emploi de la voix d'après différents modèles d'expression. C'est un ensemble d'activités à réaliser compte tenu de l'apprentissage de deux langues et donc:
* des traits phonologiques de chacune d'elles;
* de la priorité, attestée et reconnue, des traits mélodiques dans la formation bilingue (intonation, rythme, accent);
* des interférences linguistiques dérivant de différentes structures d'intonation, de la caractérisation verbale, de l'articulation, de la syllabation et de l'accentuation de chaque langue.
NB : tiré du paragraphe consacré à Education au son et à la musique
004
* To pronounce sounds correctly
* To understand the way different sounds can link into each other to form words
* To identify the smallest sound units which can make a difference to meaning
005 Show an interest in expressing oneself through speaking with appropriate pronunciation and expression
006
* practise and master pronunciation of formal language (words, sentences and texts)
* try to speak as formally as possible in conversation and during the intercourse with their teachers
* try to speak as formally as possible in conversation and during the intercourse with their teachers
007
* articuler clairement et correctement pour assurer une bonne intelligibilité
* Recourir à des éléments prosodiques, mimiques et gestuels
B. SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCE – LA COMPOSANTE SOCIOLINGUISTIQUE
001
* explain how a person might offend others through language use
* describe language and the use of language, parts of speech and their functions
002
* adhere to basic communication rules in a conversation
* select suitable verbal as well as non-verbal means of expression in everyday situations both at school and outside of school
* distinguish communicative sentence types in a text and form them using proper linguistic and phonetic means
003
* être attentif aux correspondances sémantiques et lexicales entre les parlers locaux, les patois, proches de la langue
* distinguer les différences d'accent présentes dans la classe et dans son entourage social immédiat
004
* To distinguish geographical, social and historical contexts which origin different varieties of the Portuguese language
* To identify features of standard language
* To speak fluently and accurately in most situations, using verbal and non-verbal resources, with a complexity appropriate to the situations of communication
005
* Positive awareness of the linguistic variety in the school and wider social context.
* Know the locations of Spain’s languages and show a positive evaluation of this linguistic richness, avoiding prejudices about the languages and their speakers
* Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences
006
* they monitor their own and other communication in Slovene in different contexts and evaluate appropriatness in the given contexts
* they detect and identify their own and other stylistic mistakes, reduce them and support their corrections with arguments
* they use different speech techniques (the same oral activity in different ways), appreciate/evaluate politeness
007
* Respecter les règles de la politesse (ne pas interrompre les autres, écouter)
* Valoriser les propos d’autrui (signes de tête, gestes supportants)
C. PRAGMATIC COMPETENCES - LA COMPOSANTE PRAGMATIQUE
1. Discursive competence - La compétence discursive
001
* lay out a text with a heading, an introduction and a conclusion.
002
* create an outline of a narration and prepare a short oral or written expression based on it while preserving chronological sequence
* use appropriate connectives and vary them as required by the utterance
003
* rendre les conversations et les discours intéressants
* avoir un discours cohérent et dialoguer avec efficacité
004
* To combine utterances in coherent and cohesive texts
* To use a range of words which are relevant for the subject
* To explain the meaning of figurative expressions
005 Ability to express oneself clearly in an organised, coherent way, according to the genre and communicative situation. Students should be able to select the relevant contents and express them using the lexis and formulas appropriate to these situations, such as tone of voice, body language and gestures
006 identify parts of text (paragraphs)
007
* Suivre le développement du texte, sa structure, repérer des étapes, des passages importants dans un texte
* Résumer des passages, créer soi-même une structure en créant de nouveaux titres intermédiaires
* Identifier les traces de la structure du texte (p.ex. en soulignant des titres et des sous-titres, les mots de liaison…)
2. Functional competence - La compétence fonctionnelle
001 write stories, poems, letters and factual prose
002
* express oneself according to the communication situation: greetings, addressing, apologies, requests, messages, announcements, narration, polite presentation, descriptions,
* congratulations, invitation,
003
* produire des textes axés sur la description, le récit, l'argumentation et la spontanéité
* (*) On écrit en fonction des besoins: les élèves prennent des notes, rédigent des rapports, font des interviews et des sondages, organisent des recherches (selon les contenus des différentes matières).
004
* To ask for information and complementary explanation
* To ask questions, to make requests, to give an opinion, to justify a point of view
005 Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences
006
* identify visual and audio non-verbal elements that accompany speech, present their role in speaking activity /conversation and their impact on listeners/interlocutors
* compare non-verbal elements that accompany speech in conversations and talks
* observe non-verbal written messages (pictograms, graphs, maps, photographs), and present their intelligibility and effectiveness
007 ---
3. Interactive competence - La compétence interactionnelle
001
* assess and compare his or her own texts and those of others
002
* correctly conduct a dialogue, a telephone conversation, leave a message on an answering machine (on voicemail)
* select suitable verbal as well as non-verbal means of expression in everyday situations both at school and outside of school
003
* communiquer par écrit avec des interlocuteurs différents d'une manière toujours plus articulée et complète, dans le contenu et dans la forme
* considérer dans son ensemble la pensée de ses interlocuteurs et y découvrir tout ce qu'elle recèle d'ordinaire, d'essentiel, d'original
004
* To interact spontaneously and confidently in informal communicative situations
* To contribute effectively to class or group work in gradually formal situations
005
* Ability to establish satisfactory social relationships with others, as well as ability to initiate, sustain and end conversations with peers
* Valuing and respecting the rules of oral interaction: turn-taking, different roles in the exchange, appropriate tone of voice, body language and gestures
* Use non-discriminatory language which respects differences. Adopt a critical attitude toward any message which implies any kind of discrimination
006 adapt the same texts to different listeners and explain their adaptations
007 ----
CODE Any comments - Commentaires éventuels
001 There seems to be considerable overlap between the C sub-categories . We have therefore chose not to break down the assessment of Pragmatic competences (pour le tableau 2.2.2.)
003 L’emploi de la couleur rouge intervient lorsqu’un même descripteur est répété sous diverses « rubriques » et elle indique la partie, pour chaque rubrique, ce qui la concerne directement.
La couleur bordeaux est utilisée pour signaler dans les descripteurs (ou similaires) en langues une référence aux autres matières.
(*) Ce signe n’indique pas de descripteurs véritables, mais des citations repérées dans les programmes. Il a été décidé de les signaler car elles pourraient facilement être transformées en descripteurs.
004 Communicative competence does not seem to be the most accurate term (there is communication in all the other competences). The division into Linguistic Competence, Sociolinguistic Competence and Pragmatics Competence could be reconsidered – the two last ones are part of the linguistic competence, not separate competences at the same level.
Also, within the Linguistic competence, there seems to be mixed plans: grammar competence is not at the same level of the others (lexical, semantic, orthographic, and phonological). Grammar is about the knowledge of the norms concerning these levels and others. We have norms for the lexis, the semantics, the orthography and the phonology. And what about syntax and morphology?
We recommend that this organization to be reviewed by a linguistic. We can recommend a Portuguese researcher with a very strong curriculum – Professor João Costa - jcosta@fcsh.unl.pt .
005 The following descriptors are adjusted to the curricula aims and goals for each triennium
006 Compétence fonctionnelle et interactionnelle : L'introduction du Plan d'études spécifie que toutes les activités langagières doivent s'inscrire dans un contexte concret, en relation avec le vécu des apprenants.
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